EXCHANGE 


The  Pedagogical  Value  of  the 
Virtue  of  Faith  as  Developed 
in  the  Religious  Novitiate 

•••  **V- 
Brother  Chrysostom,  F.  S.  C. 


A  Dissertation  Submitted  to  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  of  the 

Catholic  University  of  America  in  Partial  Fulfilment 

of  the  Requirements  for  the  Degree 

Doctor   of   Philosophy 


PHILADELPHIA 

JOHN  JOSEPH  McVEY 
1915 


The   Pedagogical  Value  of   the 

Virtue  of  Faith  as  Developed 

in  the  Religious  Novitiate 

BY 

BROTHER  CHRYSOSTOM,  F,  S.  C. 


A  Dissertation  Submitted  to  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy  of  the 
Catholic    University    of  America    in    Partial    Ful- 
filment   of    the    Requirements    for    the 
Degree  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 


PHILADELPHIA 

JOHN  JOSEPH  McVEY 

1915 


LC4-2S 


COPYRIGHT,  1915, 
JOHN  JOSEPH  McVEY 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  purpose  of  this  dissertation  is  to  examine  the 
Pedagogical  Value  of  those  exercises  of  the  Religious 
Novitiate  which  express  and  develop  Catholic  Faith. 
The  pages  herewith  presented  form  part  of  a  larger 
work  which  the  author  hopes  to  publish  in  the  near 
future.  Other  chapters  in  the  book  will  discuss  the 
psychological  aspects  of  Faith,  and,  to  use  the 
favorite  terminology  of  current  educational  literature, 
the  biological,  psychological,  and  sociological  func- 
tions of  Faith  as  developed  in  the  Religious  Novitiate. 

The  writer  takes  pleasure  in  acknowledging  his  in- 
debtedness to  Dr.  Shields,  of  the  Catholic  University, 
not  only  for  proposing  the  subject  for  investigation, 
but  for  offering  many  valuable  suggestions  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  work. 


iii 


CONTENTS. 

INTRODUCTION   iii 

CHAPTER  I. 
THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

Article        I. — The  Normal  School  in  General 1 

Article      II.— The  Aim  of  the  Normal  School 4 

Article    III.— The  Curriculum  of  the  Normal  School 9 

Article    IV.— Method  in  the  Normal  School 14 

Article      V.— The  Spirit  of  the  Normal  School 16 

Article    VI. — Limitations  of  the  Normal  School 19 

Article  VII.— Summary   26 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  RELIGIOUS  NOVITIATE. 

Article        I.— The  Religious  Life  in  General 28 

Article      II.— The  Nature  and  Aim  of  the  Novitiate 34 

Article    III.— The  Curriculum  of  the  Novitiate 41 

Article    IV.— Method  in  the  Novitiate ." 48 

Article      V.— The  Spirit  of  the  Novitiate 57 

Article    VI.— Limitations  of  the  Novitiate 64 

Article  VII. — Summary   73 

CHAPTER  III. 
THE  PERSONALITY  OP  THE  TEACHER. 

Article        I.— What  is   Personality? 74 

Article      II.— What  Society   Expects 77 

Article    III.— What  the  Catholic  Church  Demands 80 

Article     IV.— What  the  Novitiate  Offers 85 

Article      V.— The  Teacher's  Ideals  of  Personality 90 

General  Summary. — The  Necessity  of  Faith 98 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 


Article  I. — The  Normal  ScJwol  in  General. 

IT  is  the  function  of  the  normal  school  to  train 
teachers  for  service  in  the  public  schools.  In  order  to 
form  an  estimate  of  the  Pedagogical  Value  of  the  Virtue 
of  Faith  as  developed  in  the  Religious  Novitiate,  we 
will  take  the  normal  school  as  a  term  of  comparison. 

For  the  year  ending  June,  1913,  284  normal  schools 
in  the  United  States,  if  we  include  in  that  number  both 
public  and  private  schools,  reported  to  the  Bureau  of 
Education  in  Washington.1  In  the  regular  training 
courses  for  teachers  these  schools  had  a  total  enrollment 
of  94,455  students.  If  to  this  number  we  add  21,425 
students  pursuing  like  courses  in  931  high  schools,  and 
5,626  students  similarly  engaged  in  265  private  high 
schools  and  academies,  we  have  a  grand  total  of  121,- 
506  students  preparing  to  fix  the  ideals  and  form  the 
conduct  of  the  nation  as  far  as  the  public  schools  are 
concerned.  It  is  true  that  many  of  our  colleges  and 
universities  have  departments  of  education.  It  is  also 
true  that,  while  they  are  particularly  well  equipped  to 
train  teachers  for  high  school  work,  yet  they  often 


'See  Bulletin,  1914,  No.  16,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  The 
Tangible  Rewards  of  Teaching,  compiled  by  James  C.  Boykin  and 
Roberta  King,  pp.  416  ff. 

1 


he  Normal  School. 


extend  their  courses  both  above  and  below  this  domain. 
They  train  some  students  for  college  teaching,  and 
others  for  teaching  in  the  grade  schools.  However, 
even  when  they  give  courses  for  the  teaching  of  subjects 
in  the  grammar  schools,  these  courses  are  patronized 
largely  by  men  and  women  who  are  already  actively 
engaged  in  the  work  of  teaching.  As  a  result  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  such  courses  in  pedagogy  given 
in  universities  as  are  suited  to  grade-school  teachers 
are  either  extension  courses  conducted  in  the  late 
afternoon  or  the  evening  or  on  Saturdays,  or  summer 
courses  when  the  general  facilities  and  resources  of  the 
universities  are  opened  to  the  ambitious  teacher.  We 
are,  then,  justified  in  taking  the  normal  school  as  a 
term  of  comparison.1 

From  another  viewpoint  it  likewise  appears  that  the 
normal  school  is  a  proper  term  of  comparison.  We 
quote  from  Professor  Thorndike's  Elimination  of  Pupils 
from  School.2 

"I  estimate  that  the  general  tendency  of  American  cities  of 
25,000  and  over  is,  or  was  at  about  1900,  to  keep  in  school  out 
of  100  entering  pupils  90  till  grade  4,  81  till  grade  5,  68  till  grade 
6,  54  till  grade  7,  40  till  the  last  grammar  grade  (usually  the 
eighth,  but  sometimes  the  ninth,  and  rarely  the  seventh),  27  till 
the  first  high  school  grade,  17  till  the  second,  12  till  the  third,  and 
8  till  the  fourth.  ...  It  will  be  remembered  that  figures  for 
the  public  schools  in  the  country  as  a  whole  are  probably  much 
lower  than  this." 


1  On  the  new  Normal  School  movement,  see  Educational  Review, 
Vol.  XLV,  pp.  195,  198,  304,  409,  509. 

aThorndike,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  4,  1907, 
Whole  No.  379,  p.  11. — Add  this  passage  from  Moral  Training  in 
the  Public  Schools  (The  California  Prize  Essays) :  "Now  at  least 


The  Normal  School  in  General.  3 

From  this  it  follows  that  the  destinies  of  the  nation 
are  largely  shaped  by  the  normal  school  graduates.  Is 
there  justification  for  placing  so  much  responsibility  in 
their  hands?  For  the  present  let  us  content  ourselves 
with  applying  the  principle  of  selection  to  the  case. 

"All  environmental  agencies,  and  especially  our  educational 
agencies,  are  a  great  system  of  means,  not  only  of  making  men 
good  and  intelligent  and  efficient,  but  also  of  picking  out  those 
who  for  any  reason  are  good  and  intelligent  and  efficient.  In  the 
latter  sense  they  may  be  said  to  improve  not  the  production,  but 
the  distribution  of  mental  and  moral  wealth.  They  help  to  put 
the  right  men  in  the  right  places.  ...  To  have  gone  to  school 
at  all  means  not  only  that  you  have  perhaps  learned  to  read  and 
write,  but  also  that  you  were  not  an  invalid,  idiot,  or  runaway. 
To  have  progressed  halfway  through  the  grade  schools  means  not 
only  that  you  have  learned  somewhat,  but  also  that  you  were  not 
one  of  the  ten  or  twenty  per  cent,  who,  by  lack  of  means  or 
ambition  or  health  or  mental  ability,  have  been  eliminated  from 
the  school  system.  To  have  graduated  from  a  high  school  means 
that  you  are  one  of  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  group  who 
entered  school  with  you,  a  percentage  picked  for  survival  not  by 
chance,  surely.  And  so  on  with  the  college  and  professional 
schools."  * 


nine-tenths  of  our  children  leave  school  at  the  dawn  of  ado- 
lescence, the  most  critical  period  of  their  lives,  when  moral  guid- 
ance is  more  necessary  to  them  than  at  any  other  time  between 
birth  and  death;  when  the  methods  of  childhood  are  becoming  ob- 
solete; when  responsibility  begins,  but  judgment  is  immature; 
when  moral  storms  tear  up  the  moral  growths  of  childhood  and 
dreams  float  in  the  air;  when  children  seem  strange  to  them- 
selves; when  they  are  morally  more  lonely  than  ever  before  or 
afterwards;  when  they  must  not  only  face  the  great  tempta- 
tions of  life,  but  make  its  great  decisions  without  experience; 
when  they  least  desire  others  to  penetrate  their  thoughts  or  mold 
their  judgments.  The  greatest  need  of  this  period  is  a  moral 
one.  What  provision  do  the  schools  make  for  it?"  "Fourth 
Essay,"  pp.  135,  136,  by  Frank  Cramer. 
1  Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  pp.  94  f. 


4  The  Normal  School. 

This  passage  shows  that  the  student  who  enters  the 
normal  school  may  have  at  least  the  negative  require- 
ments of  a  teacher.  It  remains  then  for  the  normal 
school  to  develop  the  positive  qualities.  This  task 
becomes  more  difficult  as  the  years  go  on.  There  are 
many  forces  at  work  tending  to  the  disintegration  of 
family  ties,  to  the  transfer  of  home  activities  from  the 
fireside  to  the  factory,  and  to  the  transfer  of  home 
sympathies  from  the  children  to  social  acquaintances, 
to  business  friends,  and  to  club  policies.  All  these 
factors  react  in  turn  upon  the  plastic  minds  of  the 
young.  Hence  it  is  that  many  of  our  school  problems 
of  to-day  were  undreamed  of  fifty  years  ago.  In  this 
crisis  what  agency  shall  save  our  public  schools?  What, 
indeed,  if  not  our  normal  schools?  To  them  therefore 
does  the  nation  look  for  the  imparting  to  the  young 
of  loyalty  to  high  ideals  and  unswerving  devotion  to 
duty.  Can  the  normal  schools  discharge  this  high 
office?  To  answer  this  question  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  aim  of  the  normal  school. 

Article  II. — The  Aim  of  the  Normal  School. 

The  fifth  resolution  at  the  Cleveland  Meeting  of  the 
National  Education  Association  in  1908  (Normal 
School  Department)  reads: 

"Resolved,  That  while  the  normal  school  is  not  the  only  agent 
for  the  training  of  teachers,  it  is  the  State's  chief  agent,  and  as 
such  it  should  set  up  the  standards  of  teaching,  determine  the 
ideals,  and  train  the  men  and  women  whose  call  is  to  educational 
leadership."  * 


1  Proceedings  of  National  Education  Association,  1909,  p.  551. 


The  Aim  of  the  Normal  School.  5 

The  normal  school  aims,  therefore,  to  give  the  teacher 
his  professional  preparation.  This  view  is  confirmed 
by  Professor  Gordy  in  The  Rise  and  Growth  of  the 
Normal  School  Idea:1 

"I  hold,  with  the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  that  the 
design  of  the  normal  school  is  strictly  professional;  that  is,  to 
prepare  in  the  best  possible  manner  the  pupils  for  the  work  of 
organizing,  governing,  and  teaching  the  public  schools,  and  that 
this  professional  preparation  includes  the  most  thorough  knowl- 
edge, first,  of  the  branches  of  learning  required  to  be  taught  in 
the  schools;  second,  of  the  best  methods  of  teaching  these 
branches;  third,  of  right  mental  training;  and  I  hold  that  in  our 
system  of  schools  the  normal  school  is  not  only  the  proper  agency 
for  undertaking  the  whole  of  the  professional  training  of  intend- 
ing teachers  of  a  certain  grade,  but  that  it  is  the  only  institution 
which  really  professes  to  supply  any  of  his  professional  needs. 
The  theory  that  normal  schools  have  no  business  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  the  subjects  their  pupils  are  preparing  to  teach,  I  regard 
as  a  survival  of  the  fallacy  of  the  monitorial  system  (of  Bell  and 
Lancaster),  which  held  that  the  bare  knowledge  of  a  fact  qualifies 
its  possessor  to  teach  it."* 

In  the  realization  of  its  aim  of  training  for  profes- 
sional service,  the  normal  school  must  depend  chiefly 
upon  its  faculty;  for  "the  faculty  is  the  soul  of  the 
institution."  There  are  four  qualifications  which  every 
member  should  possess :  character,  teaching-ability, 


1  Published  as  Bulletin  No.  8,  1891,  Bureau  of  Education. 

a  P.  130.  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  this  study  was  pub- 
lished in  1891.  In  more  recent  years  not  a  few  universities  have 
divided  the  field  with  the  normal  schools,  among  them  New  York 
University  where  Professor  J.  P.  Gordy  taught  for  several  years 
before  his  death. 

8  See  "Function  of  Normal  School,"  Report  of  Special  Com- 
mittee on  Normal  Schools,  Proceedings  of  National  Education 
Association,  1899,  p.  838. 


6  The  Normal  School. 

scholarship,  and  culture;1  and  of  these  character 
stands  first.  "Nothing  can  take  its  place."  A  like 
judgment  is  pronounced  by  James  E.  Russell,  Dean  of 
Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University,  as  a  result  of 
many  years  of  practical  experience  in  preparing  teach- 
ers for  the  proper  discharge  of  their  office. 

"The  first  qualification  for  professional  service,  therefore,  is 
good  character,  the  conscious  striving  for  high  ideals.  The  pro- 
fessional worker  looks  to  the  future  and  is  pledged  by  his  vocation 
to  make  the  future  better  than  the  present.  Such  an  aim  implies 
in  these  days  the  possession  of  two  other  qualifications,  each 
potent  and  indispensable.  One  of  these  is  specialized  knowledge, 
and  the  other  is  skill.  These  three — an  ethical  aim,  specialized 
knowledge,  and  technical  skill — are  the  trinity  upon  which  pro- 
fessional service  rests.  The  stone-cutter  may  have  superior  skill, 
but  with  only  a  modicum  of  specialized  knowledge  and  lacking 
an  ethical  aim,  he  remains  the  artisan;  the  physician  who  is 
ignorant  of  his  subject,  however  high  his  aim  or  however  skillful 
in  practice,  is  still  a  quack;  if  he  is  learned  in  high  degree  but 
lacks  professional  skill,  he  is  a  confirmed  bungler;  the  lawyer 
who  is  versed  in  the  subtleties  of  the  law  and  adroit  in  legal 
procedure,  but  who  disregards  the  ethics  of  his  profession,  is  a 
charlatan  despised  of  men. 

"The  teacher  may  be  a  professional  worker.  But  he  who  puts 
himself  in  the  professional  class  must  know  accurately  what  he 
is  to  do,  have  the  requisite  skill  for  doing  it,  and  do  his  work 
under  the  guidance  of  high  ethical  principles.  The  teacher  who 
is  ignorant  of  his  subject  is  a  quack;  the  teacher  who  lacks  pro- 
fessional skill  is  a  bungler;  the  teacher  who  is  not  inspired  by 
high  ideals  is  a  charlatan." a 

What,  then,  is  this  ethical  aim  which  every  teacher 
should  possess  and  which  therefore  should  pre-eminently 


1  Ibid. 

3  "Professional  Factors  in  the  Training  of  the  High  School 
Teacher,"  Educational  Review,  Vol.  XLV  (March,  1913),  pp.  218, 
219. 


The  Aim  of  the  Normal  School.  7 

direct  the  actions  of  every  member  of  the  normal  school 
faculty?  According  to  Dean  Russell,  it  is  "intelligent 
self-direction."  l  In  this  art  the  normal  school  pro- 
fessor is  presumed  to  be  expert  when  he  is  placed  over 
normal  students ;  for  must  he  not  train  them  to  follow 
high  ideals?  In  this  difficult  yet  inspiring  work  he 
must  so  impart  moral  principles  that  they  will  become 
dynamic  factors  not  only  in  shaping  the  conduct  of 
each  and  every  one  of  the  normal  students  with  whom 
he  comes  into  personal  relations,  but  likewise  and  es- 
pecially in  molding  through  them  the  lives  of  all  their 
future  pupils.  In  his  endeavor  to  reach  this  result, 
what  resources  can  the  professor  command? 

Fundamentally  these  are  the  same  as  the  resources 
available  for  the  teacher  of  the  grade  school  or  the 
high  school. 

"What  we  need  in  education  is  a  genuine  faith  in  the  existence 
of  moral  principles  which  are  capable  of  effective  application. 
.  .  .  The  teacher  who  operates  in  this  faith  will  find  every 
subject,  every  method  of  instruction,  every  incident  of  school  life 
pregnant  with  moral  possibility."  * 

From  this  it  follows  that  moral  principles  should 
dominate  every  moment  of  school  life.  This  they  can- 
not do  unless  they  be  knit  into  every  fiber  of  the  teach- 
er's conscious  life.  It  is  only  through  the  teacher's 
personality  that  they  can  (1)  pervade  the  curriculum, 
(2)  shape  the  methods,  (3)  determine  and  enrich  the 
spirit  of  the  school,  as  Professor  Dewey  so  earnestly 

'Op.  cit.,  p.  229. 

a  Prof.  Dewey,  Moral  Principles  in  Education,  pp.  57,  58. 


8  The  Normal  School. 

recommends.  It  is  by  seeing  moral  principles  exem- 
plified in  the  daily  conduct  of  his  teacher  that  the 
pupil's  "faith"  in  these  principles  is  to  be  fostered  and 
developed.  This  was  fully  appreciated  by  the  Inter- 
national Committee  on  Moral  Training,  when  its  Ex- 
ecutive Chairman,  Clifford  W.  Barnes,  presented  this 
statement  to  the  National  Education  Association,  in 
1911: 

"The  teacher,  through  his  personality,  should  bring  religion  to 
the  aid  of  morality.  Considering  my  words  very  carefully,  I  have 
no  hesitation  in  affirming  that  an  irreligious  person  has  no  right 
to  teach  in  a  public  school.  ...  I  mean  by  'irreligious'  a 
person  who  fails  to  perceive  any  relation  between  the  finite  and 
the  infinite,  who  recognizes  no  supreme  good  in  the  universe,  who 
has  no  consciousness  'of  a  power  not  himself  that  makes  for 
righteousness/  Such  men  are  often  caught  by  the  tide  of  whole- 
some life  which  surrounds  them  on  every  side,  and  are  carried 
on  to  the  achievement  of  a  noble  career.  But  as  teachers  of  the 
young  they  lack  in  the  spirit  of  reverence,  in  the  discernment  of 
true  values,  in  the  power  to  quicken  high  ideals,  and  in  that  love 
for  self-sacrifice  which  the  Great  Teacher  taught  his  disciples."  * 

Furthermore,  "the  most  dangerous  man  to-day, 
socially,  is  the  religionless  man,  because  he  is  the  rud- 
derless man,  a  derelict  upon  life's  sea."  Religion 
"shifts  the  individual's  attention  from  self  to  society, 
and  in  so  doing  makes  him  a  better  citizen."  3  The 


1  Proceedings  of  National  Education  Association,  1911,  pp.  399, 
400. 

8  Wm.  W.  Elwang,  University  of  Missouri  Studies,  Social  Sci- 
ence Series,  Vol.  II,  "The  Social  Function  of  Religious  Belief," 
p.  96. 

« Ibid,  p.  93. 


The  Aim  of  the  Normal  School.  9 

State  relies  on  the  school  to  train  the  young  for  loyal 
and  upright  service  in  society.1  The  common  school  in 
turn  appeals  to  the  normal  school  for  deeply  religious 
teachers  of  forceful  personality.  By  what  means  can 
the  normal  school  supply  this  demand  other  than 
through  the  personality  of  its  teaching  staff?  We 
have  quoted  above  the  words  of  Professor  John  Dewey. 
In  his  judgment  there  are  three  sources  of  moral  train- 
ing: (1)  the  curriculum,  (2)  methods  of  teaching, 
(3)  the  atmosphere  of  the  school,  its  social  spirit. 
Let  us  consider  the  curriculum. 

Article  III. — The  Curriculum  of  the  Normal  School. 

Historically,  the  first  classes  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  the  United  States  made  no  attempt  to  give 
any  professional  preparation,  in  the  proper  meaning 
of  that  term.2  They  were  concerned  simply  with  im- 
parting to  the  candidates  a  knowledge  of  the  subjects 
which  they  would  have  to  teach.8  So  meager  a  program 


'Cf.  Dewey:  "The  moral  responsibility  of  the  school,  and  of 
those  who  conduct  it,  is  to  society."  Moral  Principles  in  Educa- 
tion, p.  7.  See  also  his  "Course  of  Study,  Theory  of,"  and  C.  A. 
Perry's  "School  as  a  Social  Center,"  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of 
Education. 

'Concerning  the  first  normal  schools  in  Europe,  see  Gordy, 
op.  cit.  pp.  17,  18.  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  in  the 
articles,  "Training  of  Teachers"  and  "Normal  School,"  makes  no 
mention  of  the  work  of  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle  in  establish- 
ing normal  schools  in  1681  and  1684. 

'  See  Gordy,  op.  cit.  Chaps.  I,  II. 


10  The  Normal  School. 

was  soon  found  to  be  inadequate;  and  to  it  were  added 
mental  philosophy,  psychology,  and  moral  philosophy.1 
In  1899  the  Committee  on  Normal  Schools  recom- 
mended the  following  course  as  the  ideal  at  which  the 
normal  school  should  aim:2 

I. — Man  in  himself,  embracing;  physiology,  psychology,  ethics, 
religion.  II. — Man  in  the  race,  embracing:  history,  anthropology, 
literature,  general  psychology.  III. — Man  in  nature,  embracing: 
physics,  chemistry,  biology,  mathematics,  physiography,  astron- 
omy. IV. — Man  in  society,  embracing:  sociology,  government, 
home  economics.  V. — Man  in  expression,  embracing:  language, 
drawing,  construction,  physical  culture,  music,  art.  VI. — Man  in 
school,  embracing:  philosophy  of  education,  science  and  art  of 
teaching,  history  of  education,  school  economics. 

It  is  significant  that  this  committee  looked  upon 
religious  teaching  not  only  as  necessary  for  "man  in 
himself,"  but  also  as  the  most  important  of  the  four 
subjects  grouped  under  that  heading:  this  is  indicated 
by  the  order  in  which  they  named  it.3  In  the  estimation 
of  the  members,  ethics  without  religion  would  not  be 
sufficient  for  the  future  teacher.  This  phase  of  the 
matter  under  consideration  at  once  raises  the  question: 
What  is  the  criterion  that  should  determine  the  selection 
of  subjects  for  the  curriculum?  An  answer  has  been 
given  by  Professor  Dewey  in  discussing  this  topic  with 
reference  to  the  common  school.  With  slight  modifica- 
tion it  may  be  applied  to  the  normal  school  also. 


'Ibid.,  chap.  IV. 

a  National  Education  Association  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  841. 
8  See  also  The  Modern  High  School,  by  Johnston  and  others, 
pp.  753,  754, 


The  Curriculum  of  the  Normal  School.         11 

"A  study  is  to  be  considered  as  a  means  of  bringing  the  child 
to  realize  the  social  scene  of  action.  Thus  considered,  it  gives  a 
criterion  for  selection  of  material  and  for  judgment  of  values. 
We  have  at  present  three  independent  values  set  up"  [viz.,  cul- 
ture, information,  discipline].1 

If,  in  this  statement,  the  phrase  "social  scene  of 
action"  be  interpreted  broadly,  the  "ideal"  course  men- 
tioned above  will  be  found  to  measure  up  to  this  require- 
ment. However,  the  general  lines  of  the  curriculum 
which  every  school  should  aim  to  include  have  been 
sketched  more  briefly  and  indicated  more  clearly  under 
these  five  topics:  literature,  science,  art,  religion,  and 
institutions.2  Collectively  they  constitute  what  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  man's  "five-fold  spiritual  inherit- 
ance." We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  normal  school 
as  a  school  must  either  presuppose  or  provide  training 
in  these  five  subjects;  that  is,  in  the  first  five  divisions 
of  the  "ideal"  scheme  outlined  above.  As  a  normal,  or 
professional  school  it  must  likewise  include  the  theory 
and  the  practice  of  teaching.3  The  theory  is  provided 
for  in  the  sixth  division  of  the  "ideal"  plan,  and  the 
practice  is  realized  in  classes  for  the  observation  of 
model  lessons  and  methods,  and  for  the  teaching  given 
by  normal  students  under  direction  and  subject  to 
criticism. 

In  concluding  this  section  we  again  call  attention  to 


1  Op.  cit.,  p.  21. 

*  Butler,  Meaning  of  Education,  p.  17;  Shields,  Psychology  of 
Education,  Lesson  IX,  pp.   111-114. 

1  Cf .  Ruediger,  Principles  of  Education,  pp.  5,  10;  Gordy,  op. 
cit.,  pp.  129,  130;  Elmer  E.  Brown,  Education,  Vol.  XXIX,  pp.  1-6. 


12  The  Normal  School. 

the  fact  that  the  special  committee  appointed  in  1898 
by  the  National  Education  Association  to  prepare  a 
report  on  the  Function  of  the  Normal  School  regarded 
religion  as  an  essential  study  in  the  curriculum.  The 
quotation  which  we  have  given  from  Professor  Dewey 
suggests  the  value  of  the  moral  viewpoint  as  a  de- 
terminant of  the  method  of  teaching.  It  is  unequivo- 
cally asserted  by  Prof.  F.  W.  Foerster: 

"It  is  not  what  we  know,  but  for  what  purpose  we  know  it,  and 
in  what  relation  it  stands  to  the  Most  High  and  Almighty,  that 
is  of  importance  in  genuine  education.  It  is  not  the  fact  that 
we  can  read  and  write  that  really  matters,  but  what  we  read  and 
write."  J 

Yet  in  spite  of  this,  we  find  the  following  "Summary  of 
Inferences  and  Conclusions"  given  by  Prof.  W.  C.  Bag- 
ley,  in  1911,  on  "The  Present  Status  of  Moral  Educa- 
tion in  Institutions  for  the  Training  of  Teachers" : 2 

"1.  Explicit  instruction  in  the  principles  of  moral  education 
is  provided  for  by  separate  courses  in  relatively  few  universities, 
colleges,  and  normal  schools.  Such  courses  are  found  much  less 
frequently  in  the  normal  schools  than  in  the  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. 


1  Jugendlehre    (p.   7) :   "Nicht   dass  man   etwas  weiss,   sondern 
wozu   man   es   weiss    und    in    welchem   Zuzammenhang    mit    dem 
Allerhochsten    und    Allerwichtigsten — das    macht    echte    Bildung 
aus.    Und  nicht  dass  man  lesen  und  schreiben  kann,  sondern  was 
man  liest  und  was  man  schreibt,  darauf  kommt  es  an." 

Although  not  a  Catholic,  Dr.  Foerster,  formerly  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Zurich,  now  of  the  University  of  Vienna,  has  been 
brought,  by  his  studies  and  his  experience  in  the  training  of 
youth,  from  the  tenets  of  Ethical  Culture  "to  the  very  doors  of 
Rome." 

2  See   Religious   Education,   February,    1911,    "Training    Public 
School  Teachers,"  pp.  639  f.;  also  pp.  633,  634. 


TJie  Curriculum  of  the  Normal  ScJwol.         1$ 

"2.  Courses  in  ethics  are  offered  in  seventy  per  cent,  of  the 
colleges  and  universities,  and  in  twenty-two  per  cent,  of  the 
normal  schools.  In  neither  type  of  institution  are  the  courses  in 
ethics  frequently  required  of  intending  teachers. 

"3.  Instruction  in  the  principles  and  methods  of  moral  educa- 
tion seems  to  be  chiefly  provided  for  by  the  courses  in  the  history 
and  theory  of  education,  and  in  school  management.  Although 
more  than  a  majority  of  the  instructors  in  these  institutions 
believes  that,  in  the  lower  schools,  indirect  moral  instruction 
through  literature,  history,  and  science  has  a  very  important 
place,  there  seems  to  be  little  explicit  effort  to  emphasize,  in 
presenting  these  subjects  to  intending  teachers,  the  methods 
through  which  their  moral  values  may  be  realized.  It  is  to  be 
inferred  that  this  is  done  mainly  in  the  instruction  which  is  pro- 
vided in  the  history  and  theory  of  education,  and  possibly  also  in 
connection  with  observation  and  practice  teaching. 

"4.  A  majority  of  those  engaged  in  the  teaching  of  teachers 
for  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools  place  the  greatest 
emphasis  upon  school  life  as  a  source  of  moral  education,  although 
indirect  but  systematic  instruction  through  literature,  history,  and 
science  is  also  deemed  to  be  of  very  great  importance.  A  strong 
minority  favors  explicit  instruction  through  principle  and  precept 
illustrated  by  concrete  cases.  The  prevailing  opinion  is  that 
religious  instruction  in  any  form  has  no  place  in  the  elementary 
and  secondary  schools. 

"5.  There  is  noticeable  among  many  of  those  engaged  in  the 
training  of  teachers  a  feeling  that  the  problems  of  moral  educa- 
tion are  particularly  intangible  and  elusive,  and  that  a  concerted 
effort  to  untangle  at  least  some  of  the  strands  in  this  web  is 
essential  to  the  next  step  in  educational  progress." 

From  these  citations  we  seem  to  be  justified  in  con- 
cluding that,  in  the  discharge  of  its  function  of  training 
intending  teachers  for  the  work  of  developing  the  social 
efficiency  of  their  future  pupils,  the  normal  school 
relies  chiefly  (1)  upon  forming  the  normal  students  to 
right  methods  of  teaching,  and  (£)  upon  subjecting 
the  personality  of  the  normal  students  to  the  inspiring 


14  The  Normal  School 

personality  of  the  normal  staff.     Let  us  now  briefly 
consider  the  question  of  method. 

Article  IV. — Method  m  the  Normal  School. 

Method  in  general  signifies  a  way  of  doing  something. 
In  both  its  etymology  and  its  application  the  term 
implies  at  least  a  possible  choice  of  ways.  It  is  also 
inseparably  and  essentially  bound  up  with  the  idea  of 
a  goal  to  be  reached,  a  purpose  to  be  attained.  The 
value  of  a  method  of  education  must  therefore  be  de- 
termined first  of  all  by  its  intrinsic  connection  with  the 
end  and  aim  of  education.  Its  actual  efficiency  must 
depend  upon  the  knowledge  and  the  skill  of  the  teacher 
who  applies  it.  What  method  is  most  highly  recom- 
mended to-day  by  educators  of  repute  and  influence? 

It  is  the  genetic  method.  Its  vogue  is  due  to  the 
doctrine  of  evolution,  whose  principles  and  methods 
have  seeped  through  every  stratum  of  the  educational 
system.  We  may  sum  up  its  functions  in  three  words : 
Study  present  conditions,  trace  their  origin  in  the  past, 
make  a  forecast  of  the  effects  which  they  are  likely  to 
produce  in  the  future.  In  the  words  of  Professor 
Dewey  r1 

"The  method,  as  well  as  the  material,  is  genetic  when  the  effort 
is  made  to  see  just  why  and  how  the  fact  shows  itself,  what  is 
the  state  out  of  which  it  naturally  proceeds,  what  the  conditions 
of  its  manifestation,  how  it  came  to  be  there  anyway,  and  what 


1  Introduction,  pp.  xiii,  xv,  to  Irving  King's  Psychology  of 
Child  Development.  Cf.  also  Dr.  Pace,  "Survey  of  the  Prob- 
lems," Lesson  III,  in  Dr.  Shields'  Psychology  of  Education. 


Method  in  tJie  Normal  School.  15 

other  changes  it  arouses  or  checks  after  it  comes  to  be  there. 
.  .  .  In  a  truly  genetic  method,  the  idea  of  genesis  looks  both 
ways;  this  fact  is  itself  generated  out  of  certain  conditions,  and 
in  turn  tends  to  generate  something  else." 

The  graduate  of  the  normal  school  must  be  equipped 
to  grasp  the  significant  relations  of  the  various  school 
studies  to  the  realities  of  life,  to  trace  their  connections 
with  the  activities  in  which  the  pupils  of  the  grade 
schools  are  interested ;  in  a  word,  to  make  the  knowl- 
edge that  is  of  most  worth  function  in  building  up  in 
the  pupils,  both  as  individuals  and  as  members  of  a 
group,  the  habits  that  make  for  honorable  citizenship. 
In  the  words  of  Dr.  Foerster : l 

"The  training  of  the  educator  and  teacher  must  follow  two 
lines:  on  the  one  hand,  it  must  observe  and  study  in  detail  the 
actual  world  as  the  child  experiences  it;  and  on  the  other,  it  must 
examine  what  moral  action  is  to  be  required  of  the  child — 
for  this  purpose  not  only  investigating  in  a  general  way  the 
philosophical  or  religious  basis  of  such  action,  but  also  and 
especially  thoroughly  grasping  its  concrete  meaning  and  content, 
its  bearings  on  all  other  spheres  of  life,  and  its  sociological  and 
biological  aspects." 

The  school,  therefore,  must  function  as  a  social  in- 


1  Jugendlehre  (p.  21):  "Die  Schulung  des  Erziehers  und 
Lehrers  muss  dementsprechend  nach  zwei  Richtungen  gehen/ 
Einmal  jene  wirkliche  Welt  des  Kindes  eingehend  zu  beobachten 
und  zu  studieren — und  andererseits  die  geforderte  sittliche 
Leistung  nicht  etwa  nur  in  ihrer  philosophischen  oder  religiosen 
BegrUndung  zu  erforschen,  sondern  sie  vor  allem  in  ihrem  kon- 
kreten  Sinn  und  Gehalt,  ihren  Bedingungen  zu  alien  andern 
Lebensgebieten,  ihrer  soziologischen  und  biologischen  Seite 
erschopfend  aufzufassen."  See  also  E.  J.  Swift,  Learning  and 
Doing,  Chap.  II,  "Efficient  Teaching;"  Joseph  K.  Hart,  A  Crit- 
ical Study  of  Overrent  Theories  of  Moral  Education,  pp.  27,  28; 
G.  H.  Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  p.  91. 


16  The  Normal  School 

stitution.  To  be  able  to  co-operate  in  making  this 
phase  of  school  life  effective,  the  intending  teacher 
must  receive  preparation  in  the  normal  school.  What, 
then,  is  the  atmosphere  of  the  normal  school?  Does  it 
favor  the  development,  by  the  teacher,  of  a  genuine 
social  spirit  in  the  schoolroom  in  which  he  begins  to 
teach? 

Article  V. — The  Spirit  of  the  Normal  School. 

We  again  quote  from  what  has  been  termed  the 
"Normal  School  Bible,"  x  viz.,  the  Report  of  the  Special 
Committee  on  the  "Function  of  the  Normal  School." 
In  the  section  on  the  "Inner  Life  of  the  Normal  School" 
we  read: 

"In  the  school  life  of  normal  schools  there  is  probably  collected 
a  larger  percentage  of  serious-minded,  thoughtful,  earnest  people 
than  in  any  other  kind  of  an  educational  institution.  The 
majority  of  these  have  a  definite  purpose  and  are  prepared  to 
do  very  much  for  each  other  socially,  morally,  religiously. 
Wherever  the  student  organizations  known  as  the  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  and  the  Young  Women's  Association  are 
encouraged  and  authorized  to  exist,  there  great  benefit  has  always 
come  to  the  moral  and  religious  life  of  the  general  student 
body." 2 

The  worth  of  a  right  spirit  in  the  school  is  clearly 
indicated  in  the  following  lines : 

"The  first  requisite  in  the  discharge  of  its  function  is  that  the 
normal  school  shall  inspire  the  student  with  the  spirit  of  the  true 
teacher.  Its  atmosphere  must  be  such  that  he  will  be  continually 


1  National  Education  Association  Proceedings,  1909,  p.  561. 
*  National  Education  Association  Proceedings,  1899,  p.  862. 


The  Spirit  of  tlie  Normal  School.  17 

breathing  in  this  spirit.  He  is  to  consider  the  acquisition  and 
use  of  knowledge,  the  exercises  of  the  school,  his  own  purpose, 
manners,  and  conduct  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher.  It 
is  vitally  important  to  awaken  in  the  normal  student  a  just 
appreciation  of  the  work  of  the  teacher,  that  he  must  have  the 
spirit  of  service,  must  love  his  work,  love  his  pupils,  feel  that  he 
has  a  mission  which  he  must  accomplish,  and  come  to  his  pupils, 
as  the  Great  Teacher  comes  to  men,  that  they  may  have  life 
abundantly.  This  end  can  be  accomplished  only  by  a  school 
whose  sole  purpose  is  the  education  of  teachers,  and  whose 
faculty  is  consecrated  to  this  service."  * 

These  are  noble  words.  Their  acceptance  makes  it 
obligatory  on  the  faculty  of  the  normal  school  (1)  to 
cherish  a  high  ideal  of  their  profession,  (2)  persistently 
to  endeavor  to  live  up  to  it  with  a  view  to  inspire  and 
to  train  the  normal  students  under  their  guidance.  In 
other  words,  the  spirit  of  the  normal  school  depends 
chiefly  on  the  personality  of  the  teachers.2  And  so 
we  are  brought  back  to  our  first  topic,  the  aim  of  the 
normal  school,  which  we  saw  depends  for  its  realization 
on  the  personality  of  the  teaching  staff.  The  words  of 
Archbishop  J.  L.  Spalding  are  true:  "As  the  heart 
makes  the  home,  the  teacher  makes  the  school."  Now 
personality  spells  character.  In  the  words  of  Col. 
Francis  W.  Parker:  "No  matter  how  much  educators 
may  differ  in  regard  to  the  means  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing, upon  one  point  there  is  substantial  agreement; 


1  Ibid.,  pp.  884,  885. 

»Cf.  Rt.  Rev.  T.  J.  Conaty,  D.  D.,  "The  Personality  of  the 
Teacher,"  in  National  Education  Association  Proceedings,  1907, 
pp.  77-87;  also  Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools.  Essay  by 
Charles  E.  Rugh,  p.  20. 

1  Means  and  Ends  of  Education^  p.  135. 


18  The  Normal  School. 

viz.,  that  the  end  and  aim  of  all  education  is  the  de- 
velopment of  character."  x 

What  is  character?  This  unmistakable  stamp 
upon  the  moral  fiber  of  the  individual  has  two  distinc- 
tive marks :  unity  and  stability  of  purpose.  They  are 
acquired  through  self-knowledge  and  self-dominion.2 
They  are  the  product  of  intellectual  and  moral  habits. 
Character  therefore  implies  a  comprehension  of  the 
meaning  of  life,  a  clear  vision  of  end  and  means  and 
values.  Does  the  present  tendency  to  secure  moral 
training  by  organizing  the  child's  experiences  give  due 
recognition  to  the  elements  of  character?  May  edu- 
cation be  adequately  defined  as  "the  progressive  recon- 
struction of  experience,  with  a  growing  consciousness 
of  social  values  and  an  increasing  control  over  the 
processes  of  experience?"  Does  not  this  view  suggest 
Herbert  Spencer's  definition  of  the  moral  sense;  viz., 
"the  experiences  of  utility  organized  and  consolidated 
through  all  past  generations  of  the  human  race?"  Is 
the  experience  of  the  race  to  be  the  sole  guide  of  the 
teacher  in  the  discharge  of  his  apostolic  functions? 
Who  or  what  shall  interpret  this  experience?  More- 


1  Talks  on  Teaching,  p.  164,  ed.  1893. 

2  See    Gillet,    The   Education   of   Character,   pp.    16    ff.,   30    ff. 
Arthur  Holmes  somewhat  inadequately  defines  character  as  "the 
total  customary  reaction  of   an  individual  to  his   environment." 
Principles  of  Character  Making,  p.  28.     His  fundamental  prin- 
ciples are  opposed  to  Catholic  teaching.    Cf.  Catholic  Educational 
Review,  Jan.,  1915. 

8  Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  p.  164. 
4  Letter    to   John    Stuart    Mill,   quoted    in    Bain's   Mental   and 
Moral  Science,  p.  722,  ed.  1868. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Normal  School.  19 

over,  if  the  interpreter  of  experience  lack  the  confidence 
that  springs  from  the  assured  possession  of  the  truth, 
how  can  he  stir  the  deeper  emotions  that  direct  the 
current  of  one's  life?  In  the  words  of  St.  Paul:  "If 
the  trumpet  give  an  uncertain  sound,  who  shall  prepare 
himself  to  the  battle?"  Whoever  accepts  Spencer's 
appraisal  of  the  moral  sense,  logically  admits  also  his 
definition  of  life  as  "the  continuous  adjustment  of  in- 
ternal relations  to  external  relations."  Yet,  by  1898, 
Spencer  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that  "in  its  ultimate 
nature  Life  is  incomprehensible."  3  We  are  here  face  to 
face  with  difficulties. 

Article  VI. — Limitations  of  the  Normal  School. 

We  have  considered  the  aim,  the  curriculum,  the 
method,  and  the  spirit  of  the  normal  school.  We  have 
found  that  in  all  these  respects  the  absolutely  indis- 
pensable factor  is  the  personality  of  the  teacher 
—of  the  teacher  that  is,  forming  and  developing 
the  personality  of  the  teacher  that  is  to  be.  Modern 
pedagogy  refers  this  fact  to  the  principle  of  "ex- 
pression through  action" ;  that  is,  the  teacher's 
mental  attitude  is  expressed  in  his  conduct.4  The 
formation  of  a  noble  character  is  dependent  on  the  de- 
velopment of  right  mental  and  moral  habits.  But  habit- 


*I  Cor.  xiv,  8. 

•  Principles  of  Biology,  Vol.  I,  p.  30. 

•See   his   letter  in  Nature    (London),   October    12,    1898,   Vol. 
LVIII,  pp.  592,  593. 

4  Cf.   The  Scholastic  Explanation  of  Causality. 


20  The  Normal  School. 

building  demands  more  than  frequent  and  regular  repe- 
tition of  acts.  These  acts  must  be  performed  under  the 
stress  of  deep  emotion  if  they  are  to  contribute  their 
share  to  the  life,  the  higher  life,  of  either  intending 
teacher  or  prospective  pupil.  Professor  Starbuck  says 
it  "seems  to  be  one  of  the  great  streams  of  religious 
development,  to  give  those  deeper  racial  instincts  which 
are  consistent  with  self-development  and  the  develop- 
ment of  society  the  fullest  possible  expression,  and 
gradually  to  transform  and  enlarge  them  into  spiritual 
forces."  *  Supplementing  this  is  the  statement  of  Frank 
Cramer  in  the  fourth  of  the  California  Prize  Essays : 

"Without  either  insisting  or  desiring  that  the  religious  sanctions 
of  morality  be  directly  taught  in  the  schools,  we  may  here  admit 
the  secret  of  the  perennial  power  of  the  religious  sanctions  of 
morality  as  it  is  generally  understood  in  our  country.  It  is  based 
not  on  the  power  to  command  and  the  duty  to  obey,  but  on  a 
personal,  spiritual  relation  between  the  individual  and  his  God — 
a  relation  that  is  immediate,  constant,  and  worthy,  and  that  no 
changes  in  life  or  environment  can  modify.  History  has  proved 
this  Hebrew-Christian  view  to  be  the  only  one  that  can  hold 
common  men  intellectually  and  spiritually  true  to  the  best  ideals 
of  the  race."2 

The  reflections   of  Archbishop   J.  L.   Spalding  are 
here  pertinent: 

"If  education  is  a  training  for  completeness  of  life,  its  primary 
element  is  the  religious,  for  complete  life  is  life  in  God.  Hence 
we  may  not  assume  an  attitude  toward  the  child,  whether  in  the 
home,  in  the  church,  or  in  the  school,  which  might  imply  that  life 
apart  from  God  could  be  anything  else  than  broken  and  frag- 

1  Psychology  of  Religion,  p.  347. 

8  Moral  Training  in  the  Public  Schools,  p.  139, 


Limitations  of  tlie  Normal  School.  £1 

mentary.  A  complete  man  is  not  one  whose  mind  only  is  active 
and  enlightened;  but  he  is  a  complete  man  who  is  alive  in  all  his 
faculties.  The  truly  human  is  found  not  in  knowledge  alone, 
but  also  in  faith,  in  hope,  in  love,  in  pure-mindedness,  in  rever- 
ence, in  the  sense  of  beauty,  in  devoutness,  in  the  thrill  of  awe 
which  Goethe  says  is  the  highest  thing  in  man.  If  the  teacher  is 
forbidden  to  touch  upon  religion,  the  source  of  these  noble  virtues 
and  ideal  moods  is  sealed.  His  work  and  influence  become 
mechanical,  and  he  will  form  but  commonplace  and  vulgar  men. 
And  if  an  educational  system  is  established  on  this  narrow  and 
nritrrial  basis,  the  result  will  be  deterioration  of  the  national 
type,  and  the  loss  of  the  finer  qualities  which  make  men  many- 
sided  and  interesting,  which  are  the  safeguards  of  personal  purity 
and  of  unselfish  conduct."  * 

How  does  this  restriction  affect  the  normal  school? 

1.  In  the  first  place,  it  lowers  the  aim.  The  teacher 
may  not  officially  look  upon  the  Great  Teacher  of  man- 
kind as  the  divine  Exemplar  of  his  office.  Indeed  many 
of  the  books  written  by  prominent  educators  of  our  age 
place  the  Founder  of  Christianity  in  the  same  rank  with 
Socrates,  Plato,  Locke,  and  Milton.  This  very  attitude 
narrows  the  vision  of  the  intending  teacher  and  lessens 
the  nobility  of  his  profession,  whose  worth,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Christian  projects  into  a  world  beyond  time. 
The  development  of  both  his  own  and  his  pupils'  char- 
acter is  no  longer  fraught  with  such  teeming  interest, 
for  the  results  are  virtually  limited  to  the  brief  span  of 
a  human  life.  Yet  the  Christian  believes  firmly  that 
these  effects  are  everlasting.  Even  though  the  teacher 
profess  as  an  individual  the  faith  established  by  Jesus 
Christ,  yet  as  teacher  he  continually  finds  his  religious 
freedom  circumscribed  in  its  natural  exercise  and  ex- 


1  Means  and  Ends  of  Education,  pp.  168,  169. 


22  The  Normal  School 

pression  by  the  formal  prohibition  against  the  teaching 
of  religion. 

2.  This  restriction  affects  the  curriculum.  It  is 
indeed  true  that  Christianity,  for  example,  is  not  a  mere 
body  of  doctrine  to  be  learned;  it  is  pre-eminently  a 
code  of  perfection  to  be  lived.  Yet  the  very  omission 
of  a  subject  from  the  curriculum  is  in  itself  a  judgment 
against  the  relative  value  of  that  subject.  Neither 
teacher  nor  pupil  in  the  normal  school  is  completely 
immune  against  such  a  deadly  innuendo.1  This  prohi- 
bition likewise  extends  to  the  positively  religious  as- 
pects of  other  subjects  in  the  curriculum,  and  it  falls 
with  a  special  severity  upon  one  field  of  English  litera- 
ture. 

"Knowledge  of  the  English  Bible  is  passing  out  of  the  life  of 
the  rising  generation,  and  .  .  .  with  this  knowledge  of  the 
Bible  there  is  fast  disappearing  any  acquaintance  with  the 
religious  element  which  has  shaped  our  civilization  from  the  begin- 
ning. .  .  .  Teachers  all  over  this  land  are  trying  to  teach 
Chaucer  and  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Tennyson,  and  Browning. 
How  are  they  to  understand  men  who  refer  to  the  Bible,  that 
veritable  treasure-house  of  literature,  on  every  page,  if  they 
cannot  take  the  children  to  the  source  from  which  the  supply  is 
drawn?  How  are  they  to  discuss  and  interpret  the  style  of 
Ruskin,  of  Carlyle,  of  Emerson?  How  are  they  to  teach  the 
history  of  the  heroes  of  our  own  independence,  many  of  whom 
were  religious  in  every  fiber  of  their  being,  and  whose  work  will 
continue  to  bear  the  stamp  put  upon  it  in  the  beginning,  utterly 
regardless  of  what  has  become  of  religious  faith  in  the  interval? 
How  is  one  to  teach  the  truth  as  history  reveals  it,  unless  he 
teaches  the  whole  truth?"3 


1  Cf.  E.  A.  Ross,  Social  Psychology,  pp.  18,  19. 
2N.  M.  Butler,  "Some  Pressing  Problems,"  p.  74,  in  National 
Education  Association  Proceedings,  1902, 


Limitations  of  the  Normal  School.  23 

3.  This  prohibition  against  the  teaching  of  a  definite 
faith  in  the  State  normal  schools  has  its  effect  upon 
method  also.  "The  fact  that  religious  instruction  is 
excluded  makes  it  all  the  more  necessary,"  says  Arch- 
bishop Spalding,  "that  humanizing  and  ethical  aims 
should  be  kept  constantly  in  view."  l  In  every  subject, 
in  every  lesson,  the  teacher  must  strive  to  keep  the 
ethical  content  and  viewpoint  well  to  the  fore.  Not, 
indeed,  that  this  is  sufficient  for  a  thoroughly  Christian 
scheme  of  education,  but  it  is  all  that  the  law  allows. 
And  yet  book  after  book,  review  after  review  that 
touches  upon  this  theme,  tells  of  how  inadequate  are  the 
means  at  hand  to  fit  the  young  generation  for  life's 
trials  and  temptations.  The  "self-realization"  of  the 
play-ground,  the  school-city,  and  vocational  training 
must  be  crowned  by  "self-mastery."  Of  old  it  was 
termed  self-denial,  by  Christian  writers.2  That  it  is  not 
less  necessary  to-day  than  when  it  was  fed  by  living 
faith,  may  appear  from  the  statement  of  the  Head 
Master  of  Eton,  that  "the  most  certain  result"  of  sep- 
arating a  child's  morality  from  his  religious  belief,  is 
"the  perishing  of  the  latter  and  the  weakening  of  the 
former."  3  He  adds :  "If,  on  the  other  hand,  there  have 
been  no  religious  beliefs  implanted,  I  should  say  that, 
with  a  normal  child,  good  moral  instruction  would  very 
often  secure  chastity  during  boyhood,  but  would  be  an 


1  Means  and  Ends  of  Education,  p.  141. 
1  Cf .  Matt,  xvi,  24. 

•Edward   Lyttleton,  Educational  Review,  Vol.   XLVI    (Sept., 
1913),  p.  137.    See  also  p.  138, 


24  The  Normal  School. 

insufficient  protection  during  adolescence  and  early 
manhood,  when  deeply  laid  principles  are  required  to 
take  the  place  of  simple  obedience  to  parents." 

The  method  that  meets  with  greatest  favor  to-day  is 
the  genetic  method  already  described;  but  its  scope  is 
greatly  circumscribed  by  the  exclusion  of  religion  and 
the  religious  viewpoint.  The  value  of  the  exact  sciences 
is  not  comparable  to  the  worth  of  an  exact  knowledge 
of  man's  origin,  nature,  and  destiny ;  and  this  knowledge 
is  given  by  dogmatic  Christianity.  Yet  it  is  not  easy 
to  overestimate  the  value  of  such  living  moral  methods 
as  are  sketched  by  Professor  Foerster  in  his  Jugend- 
lehre  (Instruction  of  Youth).  Could  they  be  applied 
by  thoroughly  Christian  teachers  full  of  intelligent  zeal 
for  their  calling  and  free  to  follow  the  inspirations  of 
their  faith,  these  methods  would  prove  to  be  beyond 
price.  Just  as  Cardinal  Newman  has  paid  high  tribute 
to  the  value  of  natural  religion,1  so,  since  "Grace  com- 
pletes nature,"  every  Christian  should  desire  to  have 
the  best  natural  conditions  obtain  as  affording  a  richer 
opportunity  for  the  action  of  grace.  We  therefore  com- 
mend three  other  books  of  Dr.  Foerster:  Schule  und 
Charakter  (School  and  Character),  which  he  calls  a 
"contribution  to  the  pedagogy  of  obedience  and  to  the 
reform  of  school  discipline";  Lebensfuhrwng  (The 
Conduct  of  Life),  "a  book  for  young  people";  and 
Sexualethik  und  Sescualpadagogik,  the  English  transla- 


1  Grammar  of  Assent,  pp.  389-408.  Baudin,  "La  Philosophic  de 
la  Foi  chez  Newman"  (June,  July,  Sept.,  Oct.,  1906),  in  Revue  de 
Philosophie,  thinks  that  Newman  magnifies  the  scope  of  natural 
religion. 


Limitations  of  the  Normal  School.  £5 

tion  of  which  bears  the  title  "Marriage  and  the  Sex- 
Problem."  Yet,  great  as  is  the  favor  with  which  these 
books  have  been  received,  and  however  dynamic  their 
methods,  the  author  has  confessed  that  they  are  very 
inadequate  for  present  needs.  "He  has  no  doubt  that 
the  more  pedagogy  is  really  concerned  with  the  con- 
crete problem  of  character-formation,  with  the  dark 
enigma  of  man's  self-seeking,  with  his  tragic  dissension 
of  will,  with  the  psychology  of  experimentation,  and 
with  the  dynamics  of  self-conquest,  the  safer  will  it  be 
to  recognize  again  the  pedagogically  indispensable 
character  of  religious  inspiration  and  the  insufficiency 
of  the  modern  substitute."  These  words  are  taken  from 
his  address  at  the  Second  International  Congress  of 
Moral  Education,  held  at  The  Hague  in  1912.1 

The  method  which  Dr.  Fberster  and  others  have 
advocated  is  at  best  a  help.  It  is  not  a  substitute  for 
religion. 

4.  The  spirit  of  the  school  also  suffers  from  this 
restriction.  It  is  a  fact  of  experience,  which  the  psy- 
chologist has  endeavored  to  explain,  that  the  average 
man  will  express  his  religious  feelings  and  convictions 
freely  only  in  the  presence  of  those  who  share  his  faith 
or  at  least  regard  it  with  no  unfriendly  eye.2  Such  an 
attitude  tends  to  dim  the  luster  of  faith  and  to  lower 
the  pulse  of  charity.  The  supernatural  ceases  to  be  the 
great  motive  power  in  life,  and  the  longing  for  the 

1  Mdmoires  sur  I'Education  Morale  presentes  au  deuxieme 
Congres,  August,  1912,  p.  5. 

*Cf.  Father  Faber,  Notes  on  Doctrinal  and  Spiritual  Subjects, 
Vol.  II,  "English  Catholicism,"  pp.  97-116. 


26  The  Normal  School. 

better  and  nobler  activities  dies  down  to  contentment 
with  an  ordinary  existence.  This  in  turn  reacts  on  our 
associates  and  through  them  also  upon  others.1  And 
so  it  is  that  the  illumination  of  supernatural  faith  is 
wanting  to  the  teaching  staff  and  to  the  students  in 
their  mutual  relations,  to  the  subjects  of  study,  and 
even  to  the  profession  of  teaching.  Hence  it  is  that 
the  best  fuel  for  life-long  consecration  to  the  work  of 
education  is  often  wanting  and  the  professional  spirit 
may  wane.2 

Article  VII. — Summary. 

Fortunately  we  have  received  from  the  past  a  rich 
heritage  of  Christian  doctrine,  Christian  ideals,  and 
Christian  standards.  Even  non-Christians  cannot  es- 
cape their  influence.  But  if  we  would  be  true  to  our 
trust,  we  must  accept  this  faith,  cherish  these  ideals, 
and  square  our  lives  by  these  standards.  The  public 
school  system  of  this  country  is  an  act  of  faith  in  the 
efficacy  of  universal  education.  It  is  an  act  of  faith  in 
the  loyalty  of  the  public  school  teachers.  It  is  an  act 


lfThe  reverse  of  this  picture  is  well  described  by  Foerster: 
"Eine  Ahnung  von  der  Heiligkeit  dieser  Kunst  bekommt  man 
manchmal,  wenn  man  einmal  so  einem  begnadeten  Menschen 
begegnet,  dessen  blosse  Nahe  so  wirkt,  dass  wir  das  Beste  sagen 
was  in  uns  ist  und  uns  besser  ftihlen  in  seiner  Gegenwart — ein 
Mensch,  der  alles  von  uns  erreichen  kann,  was  er  will,  weil  sein 
Ton  es  bewirkt,  dass  wir  alles  vergessen,  was  hart  und  wild  in 
uns  ist,  und  nur  noch  atmen  und  leben  mogen  mit  dem  was  ihm 
ahnlich  ist."  Jugendlehre,  p.  52.  Cf.  Cardinal  Newman  on  the 
"Idea  of  a  Saint,"  Discourses  Addressed  to  Mixed  Congregations, 
pp.  94,  95. 

3Cf.  G,  H.  Betts,  Social  Principles  of  Education,  p.  111. 


Summary.  27 

of  faith  in  the  possibility  of  equal  opportunity  to  all.  It 
is  faith,  for  it  is  "the  evidence  of  things  that  appear 
not."  *  But  the  faith  is  human ;  it  does  not  rise  to  the 
fatherhood  of  God ;  it  does  not  grasp  the  deeper  mean- 
ing of  the  brotherhood  of  man.  May  not  divine  faith 
be  incorporated  in  the  work  of  education?  This  ques- 
tion we  will  consider  in  the  next  chapter. 

1  Heb.  xi,  2. 


CHAPTER    II. 


THE  RELIGIOUS  NOVITIATE. 


Article  I. — The  Religious  Life  in  General. 

SINCE  the  Religious  Novitiate  is  the  period  of  prep- 
aration for  entrance  into  a  religious  order,  its  value  is 
to  be  estimated  in  terms  of  the  religious  life  for  which 
it  prepares.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  consider 
briefly  the  nature  and  the  purpose  of  the  religious  life 
as  developed  in  and  by  the  orders  and  congregations 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  However  much  these  societies 
may  differ  in  the  aim  peculiar  to  each,  they  all  agree  in 
their  endeavor  to  procure  the  glory  of  God  by  laboring 
for  the  salvation  of  the  souls  of  the  individual  members. 
Moreover,  since  they  possess  a  unity  analogous  in  kind, 
but  superior  in  efficacy,  to  that  of  the  living  organism, 
the  welfare  of  the  whole  society  redounds  to  the  benefit 
of  each  individual  member,  and  vice  versa.  Further- 
more since  each  order  or  congregation  seeks  to  apply 
in  a  special  way  the  principles  of  Christian  teaching 
and  practice  promulgated  by  the  Catholic  Church,  it 
follows  that  the  excellence  which  it  attains  or  the  good 
which  it  works,  becomes  part  of  the  common  treasury 
of  the  whole  Catholic  Church.  Hence  it  is  that  each 
such  religious  society  is  a  genuinely  social  institution, 
contributing  generously  to  the  welfare  not  only  of  the 

28 


The  Religious  Life  m  General.  29 

Catholic  Church,  but  also  of  mankind  at  large.  This 
point  will  be  developed  more  fully  later.  Let  us  in  pass- 
ing note  this  fact  of  history,  to  which  Balmes  invites 
our  attention,1  that  wherever  the  Church  thrives  and 
the  spirit  of  her  message  to  the  race  takes  deep  root, 
there  also  springs  up  a  crop  of  generous  souls  who  long 
for  the  more  perfect  realization  of  the  life  exemplified 
in  the  person  of  our  Saviour.  This  very  longing,  if 
persistent,  becomes,  for  its  possessor,  a  kind  of  tangible 
proof  of  his  latent  ability  to  pursue  this  higher  life. 
Among  Catholics  such  a  person  is  said  to  possess  a 
"vocation"  to  either  the  priesthood  or  the  religious 
life.2'  3 


1  European  Civilization,  p.  221. 

'That  the  religious  life  does  not  necessarily  include  the  priest- 
hood follows  from:  (1)  its  history  (Cf.  Montalembert,  Monks  of 
the  West,  Vol.  I,  pp.  166,  298,  398) ;  (2)  the  fact  that  it  is  open  to 
women;  (3)  the  approbation  which  the  Holy  See  has  given  to  lay 
congregations. 

1  Religious  orders  and  congregations  agree  in  these  respects : 
1.  They  are  associations  of  persons  of  the  same  sex  who  live 
under  a  common  rule;  2.  The  members  have  bound  themselves 
by  the  three  vows  of  voluntary  poverty,  perfect  chastity,  and 
entire  obedience  to  strive  for  the  attainment  of  Christian  per- 
fection as  outlined  in  the  Gospels;  3.  Their  association  has  been 
sanctioned  by  papal,  or  at  least  by  episcopal,  approbation.  They 
differ,  however,  especially  in  this,  that  the  members  of  a  re- 
ligious order  are  bound  for  life  by  solemn  vows  with  their  de- 
rivative obligations;  whereas  the  members  of  a  religious  con- 
gregation are  bound  by  simple  vows,  which  at  first  may  be  tem- 
porary only,  i.  e.,  for  one  year  or  for  three  years,  but  which 
eventually  must  become  perpetual,  i.  e.,  they  must  cover  the  re- 
maining span  of  mortal  life.  Cf.  Heimbucher,  Die  Or  den  wnd 
Kongregationen  der  Katholischen  Kirche,  Vol.  I,  pp.  1  ff.,  23  ff. 

For  our  present  purpose  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  the 
distinction  between  an  order  and  a  congregation.  Accordingly 
we  will  use  the  two  terms  interchangeably. 


30  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

Since  those  persons  who  followed  the  call  to  this 
higher  life,  took  upon  themselves  the  special  obligation 
of  tending  to  the  perfection  of  Christianity  (that  is,  of 
striving  not  merely  to  keep  the  commandments  of  God, 
but  also  to  practise  the  Gospel  counsels),  they  became 
'bound'  to  the  service  of  God  in  a  special  way,  and  hence 
they  were  known  as  'religious.'  So  early  even  as  A.  D. 
450,  we  find  the  term  religio  used  by  the  Second  Coun- 
cil of  Aries  to  designate  what  would  now  be  called  a 
religious  order.  Later  the  term  ordo  (order)  was  sub- 
stituted, suggesting  more  particularly  the  idea  of  social 
organization.1  To  it  was  sometimes  added  the  quali- 
fying adjective  religio sus  (religious)  or  regidarls  (ac- 
cording to  rule).  The  fundamental  idea  embodied  in 
the  word  'congregation'  is  that  of  flock;  viz.,  one  fold 
with  one  shepherd,  the  superior. 

From  these  considerations  certain  ideas  stand  out 
prominently:  1.  The  religious  life  as  expressed  in  the 
religious  orders  and  congregations  of  the  Catholic 
Church  is  a  state,2  constituted  such  by  the  vows ;  it  is 
therefore  a  permanent  institution,  and  as  such  includes : 
(a)  a  system  of  fundamental  principles  guiding  the  judg- 
ments and  correcting  the  conclusions  of  those  who  share 
its  life;  (b)  an  ethical  code,  determining  their  outward 
conduct  and  in  this  way  influencing  to  some  extent  the 
feelings  and  emotions  that  give  color  to  their  daily  life; 
(c)  an  educational  agency  illustrating  in  a  notable  way 


'Id.,  p.  19. 

2  St.  Thomas    (tr.   Proctor),   The  Religious  State,  Chaps.   XV, 
XVI. 


The  Religious  Life  m  General.  31 

the  principle  that  solidarity  promotes  individuality — 
i.  e.,  that  the  highest  development  of  the  individual  is 
attained  by  sincere  and  active  co-operation  in  the  work 
special  to  the  society.1  2.  The  religious  state  imposes 
the  obligation  of  "tending  to  perfection"  by  the  practice 
of  the  Evangelical  counsels.  It  implies  continual  growth 
and  development.  "Not  to  advance  is  to  recede"  is  a 
maxim  of  spiritual  writers.  3.  In  other  words,  as  a 
state  tending  toward  Christian  perfection,  it  imposes  on 
its  members  the  obligation  of  striving  for  the  Christian 
ideal.  "I  have  given  you  a  new  commandment,"  said 
our  Lord ;  "that  you  love  one  another  as  I  have  loved 
you."  The  religious  life  is,  therefore,  characterized 
by  genuine  social  service.3 

For  comprehensive  knowledge  of  these  principles,  for 
adequate  control  over  their  application,  for  habitual 
regulation  of  one's  conduct  by  the  great  end  to  which 
these  principles  should  lead,  careful,  consistent,  and 
persistent  preparation  is  not  only  advisable  but  im- 
perative. The  religious  life  is  more  than  a  craft  de- 
manding a  period  of  diligent  apprenticeship ;  it  is,  even 
in  the  language  of  the  Catholic  Church,  a  profession4 
as  well  as  a  vocation,  and  therefore,  like  the  so-called 
"learned  professions,"  it  calls  for  a  period  of  earnest 
preparation. 


1  Baldwin,  The  Individual  and  Society,  Chap.  I. 

*  John  xiii,  34. 

'  Heimbucher,  op.  cit.,  pp.  109-111. 

4  Id,  p.  20. 


32  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

A  religious  profession  is  obviously  a  public  assump- 
tion of  the  duties  of  the  religious  life.  According  to  the 
laws  of  the  Church  now  in  force,  it  "denotes  the  act  of 
embracing  the  religious  state  by  the  three  vows  of  pov- 
erty, chastity,  and  obedience  according  to  the  rule  of 
an  order  canonically  approved."  Such  an  act  sup- 
poses in  the  one  who  makes  it,  (1)  a  trained  will,  other- 
wise he  would  be  incapable  of  the  self-mastery  revealed 
in  his  act  of  "self-donation";  (£)  a  trained  judgment, 
extending  not  only  to  the  rights  and  privileges  accruing 
to  him  as  member  of  an  order,  but  also  and  in  a  par- 
ticular manner  to  the  obligations  which  he  freely  takes 
upon  himself  for  life;  (3)  a  practical  spirit  of  sincere 
co-operation  with  his  fellow-religious  in  those  channels 
of  social  service  through  which  the  order  justifies  before 
men  both  its  claim  to  existence  and  its  appeal  for  in- 
creased membership.  Engagements  of  this  kind  are  not 
lightly  to  be  assumed.  Hence  from  the  very  character 
of  the  religious  profession,  as  well  as  from  the  nature 
of  the  religious  life,  it  follows  that  a  period  of  prepara- 
tion is  indispensable.  If  years  of  careful  training  at 
West  Point  are  held  to  be  a  necessary  equipment  for 
military  service,  if  a  special  and  comprehensive  educa- 
tion is  considered  requisite  at  Annapolis  for  candidates 
for  the  Navy,  some  preparation  is  evidently  desirable 
in  one  who  is  to  devote  his  life  not  only  to  acquiring  the 
science  of  sanctity  but  also  to  becoming  proficient  in 
the  art  of  holy  living.  For  the  religious  life,  although 
a  state,  is,  in  the  mind  of  the  Church,  not  a  static  con- 


1  Vermeersch,  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  "Profession,  Religious." 


The  Religious  Life  in  General.  33 

dition,  but  a  dynamic  factor  in  both  individual  develop- 
ment and  social  betterment. 

According  to  Professor  Ruediger,1  "Education  as  a 
professional  study  and  practice  has,  (1)  a  theory  of 
aims,  values,  and  content;  (2)  a  theory  of  instruction 
and  training;  (3)  a  history;  (4)  a  theory  of  manage- 
ment and  control;  and  (5)  a  technic  of  practice."  The 
religious  orders  hold  a  prominent  place  among  the 
giva-t  educational  agencies  controlled  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  They  too  have:  (1)  a  theory  of  aims  and 
values  that  comes  from  the  very  Founder  of  Christian- 
ity; (£)  a  content  or  curriculum  eYnbodying  the  best 
traditions  of  this  mode  of  life  from  the  days  of  the  first 
hermits  down  to  our  own  age;  (3)  a  method  of  instruc- 
tion and  training  that  has  grown  up  out  of  the  experi- 
ence of  the  great  founders  of  orders;  (4)  a  history 
that  is  intimately  connected  not  only  with  the  history 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  but  also  with  that  of  Christian 
civilization;  (5)  a  theory  of  management  and  control 
embodied  in  the  rules  and  constitutions  as  approved 
by  ecclesiastical  authority;  (6)  a  technic  of  practice 
which  is  begun  in  the  novitiate.  The  novitiate  is  there- 
fore the  "normal  school"  of  the  religious  life.  It  is  a 
school  that  prepares  for  the  profession  of  religion.  St. 
Benedict,  the  great  lawgiver  of  the  Monks  of  the  West, 
speaks  of  it  as  "the  school  of  the  Lord's  service."  2 


1  Principles  of  Education,  p.  10. 

*  Prologue  of  the  Rule,  tr.  by  a  monk  of  St.  Benedict's  Abbey, 
Fort  Augustus,  p.  11,  cited  by  T.  W.  Allies,  in  The  Monastic 
Life,  p.  175. 


34  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

Article  II. — The  Nature  and  Aim  of  the  Novitiate. 

The  period  of  preparation  for  that  formal  entrance 
into  the  religious  life  which  is  effected  by  the  act  of 
religious  profession,  is  known  as  the  novitiate.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  the  house  in  which  this  prepara- 
tion is  made.  He  who  wishes  to  become  a  member  of 
the  order  is  known  as  a  'postulant'  from  the  time  when 
he  has  been  received  into  the  house  of  the  novitiate  to 
the  date  of  his  reception  of  the  religious  habit.  After 
his  request  for  admission  has  been  duly  accepted  by  the 
proper  authorities  in  the  order,  he  is  clothed  in  the 
religious  habit  and  is  henceforth  a  'novice.'  The  term 
itself  reminds  us  of  how  the  Catholic  Church  takes  the 
mean  and  lowly  things  of  this  world  and,  appropriating 
them  to  the  purposes  of  her  mission,  lifts  them  up  to  the 
plane  of  her  spiritual  life.  In  the  ancient  Roman  days 
of  the  elder  Cato,  a  'novice'  was  a  newly  acquired  slave, 
in  contrast  to  a  veterator9  a  slave  worn  out  by  years  of 
labor  and  suffering  in  the  service  of  a  master.  Now  the 
"word  novice  ...  is  the  canonical  Latin  name  of 
those,  who,  having  been  regularly  admitted  into  a  re- 
ligious order  and  ordinarily  confirmed  in  their  high 
vocation  by  a  certain  period  of  probation  as  postulants, 
are  prepared  by  a  series  of  exercises  and  tests  for  the 
religious  profession." 


1  A.  Vermeersch,  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  "Novice."  Cf . 
Heimbucher,  op.  cit.  Vol.  I,  pp.  7  ff.  Allies,  Formation  of 
Christendom,  Vol.  I,  p.  71.  When  Newman  was  made  Rector  of 
the  Catholic  University  of  Ireland,  he  asked  Mr.  Allies  to  take 
the  chair  of  history. 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  tlie  Novitiate.         35 

The  novitiate  is,  therefore,  (1)  a  period  of  prepara- 
tion. As  such  it  should  interest:  (a)  the  genetic  psy- 
chologist who  sees  in  the  present  the  promise  and  po- 
tency of  the  future;  (b)  the  teacher,  whose  life  is  spent 
in  preparing  the  young  for  citizenship  and  social 
service.  (£)  It  is  a  period  of  preparation  for  the 
religious  'life;'  and  therefore  it  has  analogies  to  those 
features  of  adjustment  that  may  be  attractive  to  the 
biologist  in  his  study  of  organic  life.  (3)  It  is  a  prep- 
aration for  the  'religious'  life.  As  such  it  is  of  interest : 
(a)  to  the  theologian,  who  makes  a  careful  study  of  the 
virtues  that  characterize  the  religious  orders;  (b)  to 
the  Christian  who  looks  upon  the  religious  orders  as  a 
special  manifestation  of  the  vitality  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples; (c)  to  the  philosopher,  who  sees  in  Christianity 
the  realization  of  a  new  form  of  universality;  viz.,  the 
brotherhood  of  all  men,  as  a  corollary  of  the  father- 
hood of  God,  the  great  truth  taught  by  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testament. 

To  the  novice  himself  the  order  proposes  a  new  ideal 
for  his  personal  realization ;  viz.,  the  example  set  by  the 
Saviour  of  mankind  in  His  every  word  and  deed.  This 
ideal  is  constructive:  "Do  not  think  that  I  am  come  to 
destroy  the  law  or  the  prophets,"  said  the  Founder  of 
Christianity ;  "I  am  not  come  to  destroy  but  to  fulfill."  l 
It  is  prophylactic:  "He  that  shall  scandalize  one  of 
these  little  ones  that  believe  in  Me,  it  were  better  for 
him  that  a  millstone  should  be  hanged  about  his  neck, 
and  that  he  should  be  drowned  in  the  depth  of  the 


'Matt,  v,  17. 


36  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

sea."  *  It  is  remedial.  This  is  shown  by  the  parables 
of  the  good  Samaritan,2  the  lost  sheep,  and  the  prodigal 
son.3  It  is  inspiring:  "Come  to  Me,  all  you  that  labor 
and  are  burdened,  and  I  will  refresh  you."  It  is  su- 
preme: "Be  you  therefore  perfect,  as  also  your  heav- 
enly Father  is  perfect."  "Seek  ye  therefore  first  the 
kingdom  of  God  and  His  justice." 

Looking  at  the  novitiate  in  another  way,  we  may  say 
that  it  purposes  to  make  a  perfect  novice  of  each  can- 
didate who  is  received ;  that  is,  it  aims  to  develop  in  him 
both  persistent  longings  and  consistent  efforts  to  repro- 
duce in  himself  the  life  of  Christ.  With  this  end  in 
view,  it  supplies  him  with  special  means  to  broaden, 
deepen,  and  strengthen  his  Christian  faith,  that  he  may 
the  better  appreciate,  (1)  his  position  as  a  creature 
and  the  duties  that  bind  him  in  consequence;  and  (£) 
his  privileges  and  responsibilities  as  a  human  being,  as 
a  Christian,  as  a  religious.  We  shall  briefly  consider 
these  topics. 

1.  Both  reason  and  experience  tell  man  that  he  is 
dependent.  It  is  indeed  in  virtue  of  this  state  that  his 
education  is  at  once  possible  and  necessary.  But  Chris- 
tian faith  assures  him  in  no  uncertain  voice  that  his 
dependency  has  a  mark  of  nobility : 


1Matt.  xviii,  6. 
'Luke  x,  30-37. 
1  Luke  xv. 

4  Matt,    xi,   28. 

5  Matt,  v,  48. 
'Matt,  vi,  33. 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  the  Novitiate.         37 

"we  come 
From  God,  who  is  our  home." 

Although  man  must  rely  upon  his  fellow-creatures  of 
the  mineral,  the  vegetable,  and  the  animal  kingdom, 
which  minister  in  a  thousand  ways  to  his  many  wants ; 
yet,  as  embodying  in  himself  all  their  perfections,  but 
in  a  more  excellent  way,  and  as  possessing  the  attribute 
of  reason,  he  becomes  their  representative  and  there- 
fore, in  their  name  as  well  as  in  his  own,  he  owes  their 
common  Lord  and  Master  the  tribute  of  service.  The 
novitiate,  therefore,  seeks  first  of  all  to  revive  in  the 
mind  of  the  novice  a  keen  sense  of  his  position  as  crea- 
ture. It  reminds  him  that  he  must  have  "the  conduct 
and  the  virtues  befitting  a  creature.  .  .  .  He  must 
be  made  up  of  fear,  of  obedience,  of  submission,  of  hu- 
mility, of  prayer,  of  repentance,  and,  above  all,  of  love." 
It  endeavors  to  impress  upon  him  the  great  truth  that 
"the  only  knowledge  worth  much  of  his  time  and  trouble, 
the  only  science  which  will  last  with  him  and  stand  him 
in  good  stead,  consists  in  his  study  of  the  character  of 
God.  He  received  everything  from  God.  He  belongs  to 
him."  It  labors  to  produce  in  him  a  living  conviction 
that  "God  must  be  equally  the  object  of  his  moral  con- 
duct. God  must  have  his  whole  heart  as  well  as  his 
whole  mind."  Day  by  day  therefore  the  novice  draws 
nearer  to  this  conclusion : 

"A  creature  means  'All  for  God.'  Holiness  is  an  unselflng  [of] 
ourselves.  To  be  a  creature  is  to  have  an  intensified  sonship, 
whose  life  and  breath  and  being  are  nothing  but  the  fervors  of 
his  filial  love  taking  fire  on  his  Father's  bosom  in  the  pressure 
of  his  Father's  arms.  The  Sacred  Humanity  of  the  Eternal  Son, 
beaming  in  the  very  central  heart  of  the  Ever-blessed  Trinity — 


38  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

that    is    the    type,    the    meaning,    the    accomplishment    of    the 
creature."  * 

The  endeavor  to  live  up  to  his  obligations  as  creature 
makes  the  novice  a  better  man. 

2.  (a)  The  novitiate  recalls  to  him  the  lessons  of 
his  early  days.  It  reminds  him  that  he  is  possessed  of 
intelligence  and  that  he  should  direct  his  conduct  ac- 
cording to  right  reason.  Even  the  pagan  philosopher 
Aristotle  had  taught  as  much.2  If  all  men  are  bound 
to  practice  the  moral  virtues — prudence,  justice,  tem- 
perance and  fortitude — the  novice  ought  to  cultivate 
them  in  an  eminent  degree.  If  Professor  Thorndike's 
principle  of  selection  operates  in  favor  of  the  normal 
school  student,  it  operates  also  for  the  novice.  The 
novitiate  tells  him  that,  by  God's  merciful  providence, 
he  has  been  called  not  merely  into  existence  as  a  crea- 
ture, but  also  into  rational  being  as  a  man.  Both 
justice  and  gratitude  therefore  impose  on  him  the  duty 
of  aiming  to  develop  in  his  life  what  is  characteristic 
of  man  at  his  best. 

(b)  The  novice  is  not  merely  a  human  being;  he  is 
also  a  Christian  guided  by  the  light  of  divine  faith  and 
upheld  by  divine  grace.  He  might  indeed  have  been 
created  in  the  state  of  pure  nature,  endowed  with  all 
the  qualities  belonging  to  his  nature  as  man  and  with 
nothing  more.  He  could  then  be  subject  to  sickness 


1  Faber,  The  Creator  and  the  Creature,  pp.  67-69. 

2  Nicomachean  Ethics,  I,  6.    Cicero,  whom  Allies  (Formation  of 
Christendom,  Vol.  I,  pp.  144-155,  especially  pp.  152,  153)   selects 
as  the  representative  of  what  was  best  in  paganism,  repeats  these 
principles  in  De  Officiis  and  De  Finibus* 


The  Nature  and  Aim  of  the  Novitiate.         39 

and  suffering1,  since  he  has  a  body ;  to  darkness  of  in- 
tellect and  weakness  of  will,  for  he  has  a  soul ;  and  also 
to  death,  since  though  he  is  a  unitary  being,  he  is  yet 
compounded  of  spirit  and  matter.  Nor  in  this  state 
could  he  claim  integrity  of  nature  as  a  right.  The  body 
might  still  rebel  against  the  soul,  and  passion  rise  up 
against  reason.1 

But  in  the  very  beginning  man  was  constituted  in  the 
supernatural  order,  in  the  state  of  innocence,  or  orig- 
inal justice.  He  was  thereby  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
adopted  son  of  God  Himself,  dowered  in  consequence 
with  the  theological  virtues  of  faith  and  hope  and  char- 
ity, enriched  with  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  pre- 
destined not  to  the  natural  happiness  of  which  Aristotle 
has  written,2  but  to  the  supernatural  felicity  of  seeing 
his  God  face  to  face  and  possessing  Him  forever.  In 
this  way  was  his  dignity  as  man  incomparably  broad- 
ened and  deepened.  It  is  therefore  a  principal  duty  of 
the  novitiate  to  instil  into  the  future  religious  the 
spirit  of  faith,  educating  him  to  take  God's  viewpoint 
of  the  things  of  life,  feeding  his  hope  on  motives  of 
faith,  and  making  the  principles  of  faith  the  very  soul 
of  his  charity.  As  creature,  the  novice  is  servant  of 
the  Most  High;  as  Christian,  he  is  adopted  son. 

(c)  The  principle  of  selection3  has  worked  to  a  much 
higher  degree  than  this  in  the  novice.  He  is  chosen 
even  from  among  Christians.  He  has  hearkened  to  the 


1  Faber,  op.  cit,  pp.  43-46. 
8  Nicomachean  Ethics,  X,  7,  8. 
8  See  p.  3,  above. 


40  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

Master's  call:  "If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  sell  what 
thou  hast,  and  give  to  the  poor,  and  thou  shalt  have 
treasure  in  heaven:  and  come,  follow  Me."  To  insure 
the  development  of  the  three  theological  virtues,  faith, 
hope  and  charity,  and  the  keeping  of  the  ten  command- 
ments, he  is  preparing  to  surround  them  with  the  triple 
guard  of  the  three  Gospel  counsels :  poverty,  chastity 
and  obedience. 

The  religious  novitiate,  therefore,  after  laying  be- 
fore the  novice  his  state  and  his  duties  as  creature,  in- 
spires him  so  to  act  as  to  merit  the  triple  crown  of  vir- 
tuous deeds  befitting  the  man,  the  Christian,  and  the 
religious.  In  laboring  to  make  him  a  better  man,  it 
proposes  to  him  for  imitation  the  great  Christian  ideal 
not  merely  as  a  great  Teacher, — this  even  the  normal 
school  does2 — but  as  a  divine  Model  who  gives  special 
helps  to  those  who  strive  to  walk  in  His  footsteps. 
Furthermore,  to  guarantee  in  him  the  attainment  of  the 
Christian  ideal,  the  novitiate  bids  the  novice  walk  in 
the  more  excellent  way  of  religious  perfection.  Thus  is 
the  novice  doubly  guarded  against  the  moral  dangers 
to  which  even  the  normal  school  student  may  be  ex- 
posed, for  in  the  stress  and  strain  of  temptation  he  must 
withdraw  from  the  practice  not  only  of  the  Gospel  coun- 
sels but  also  of  the  Christian  law,  before  he  runs  counter 
to  the  dictates  that  emanate  solely  from  right  reason. 

To  sum  up,  we  may  say:  the  novitiate  aims  to  make 
of  the  novice  not  only  a  creature  imbued  with  loyalty 

'Matt,  xix,  21. 
a  See  p.  8,  above. 


The  Curriculum  of  the  Novitiate.  41 

to  his  Creator,  but  also  an  honorable  man,  an  exemplary 
Christian,  an  intelligent  and  zealous  religious.  By  what 
means  can  this  be  effected?  The  answer  entails  a  con- 
sideration of  both  the  curriculum  and  the  method  of 
the  novitiate. 

Article  III. — The  Curriculum  of  the  Novitiate. 

What  we  here  designate  as  the  curriculum  is  better 
known  under  the  title  of  "spiritual  exercises."  The 
latter  term  is  happy  in  both  its  parts,  and  suggests 
kinship  with  the  supposedly  modern  theory  that  all  the 
information  imparted  in  school  should  become  func- 
tional in  the  pupil's  life.  From  the  earliest  days  in  the 
history  of  the  religious  orders  the  novice  has  learned 
by  doing.1  The  novitiate  has  consistently  endeavored 
to  make  the  "learning  process"  significant  and  valuable 
for  him  by  having  him  incorporate  its  lessons  into  his 
conduct.  In  the  language  of  modern  psychology,  the 
acquisition  of  the  learning  process  determines  his  "be- 
havior." 2 

The  daily  exercises  of  the  novitiate  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  classes:  work  and  prayer;  the  one  em- 
ploying chiefly  the  activities  of  the  body;  the  other, 
those  of  the  soul.  Both  are  to  be  performed  in  com- 
mon ;  both  exert  a  socializing  influence. 

1.  Although  bodily  labor  was  not  unknown  to  the 
early  hermits  and  the  cenobites  of  the  East,  yet  St. 
Benedict  seems  to  have  been  the  first  great  religious 


1  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West,  Vol.  I,  pp.  331,  332. 
aCf.  Colvin  and  Bagley,  Human  Behavior,  Chaps.  I,  II, 


4£  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

legislator  to  make  manual  or  literary  labor  of  strict 
obligation.  He  even  "regulated  minutely  every  hour 
of  the  day  according  to  the  seasons,  and  ordained  that, 
after  having  celebrated  the  praises  of  God  seven  times 
a  day,  seven  hours  a  day  should  be  given  to  manual 
labor,  and  two  hours  to  reading."  x  The  tradition  of 
manual  labor  thus  early  formed  in  the  history  of  the 
religious  life  has  been  handed  down  to  our  own  day.  It 
is  the  remote  progenitor  of  modern  sensori-motor  train- 
ing in  school ;  and  notably  in  the  case  of  the  Benedictine 
Order,  it  has  been  productive  of  results  from  which  both 
the  agricultural  schools  and  the  schools  of  vocational 
training  of  our  own  day  may  well  take  lesson.2  The 
legislation  of  St.  Benedict  on  external  labor  served  a 
great  economic  as  well  as  Christian  purpose.  Long 
before  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,3  not  merely 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  but  all  the  industries,  in  fact 
everything  connected  with  manual  labor,  had  been  con- 
signed to  slaves.  In  consequence  of  this  association, 
both  manual  labor  and  industrial  efficiency  were  marked 
with  the  stigma  of  degradation.4  The  rule  of  St.  Bene- 
dict making  labor  by  hand  obligatory  on  all  members 
of  the  order,  whether  they  were  of  patrician  birth  or 
not,  was  the  first  organized  movement  to  restore  the 
Christian  ideal  after  the  barbarian  invasion  and  to  make 


1  Montalembert,  loc.  cit. 

•  Id.,  pp.  33-37. 

8  Allies,  Formation  of  Christendom,  Vol.  I,  pp.  66-75 ;  Dollinger, 
Heidenthum  und  Judenthum,  pp.  704-710. 

4  The  expression,  servile  works,  used  to  designate  works  for- 
bidden on  Sunday,  is  inherited  from  those  days. 


Tlie  Curriculum  of  the  Novitiate.  43 

the  material  civilization  of  Europe  possible.  St.  Augus- 
tine over  a  century  earlier  had  reminded  Christians  that 
the  law  of  labor  rests  on  man  as  man,  and  therefore  was 
binding  on  Adam  even  before  the  Fall.  A  penalty  of  the 
Fall  was  not  labor,  but  the  irksomeness  of  labor,  "the 
sweat  of  the  brow."  Manual  labor  remains  an  integral 
part  of  novitiate  life. 

8.  There  is  another  tradition  which  the  novice  in- 
herits from  St.  Benedict,  if  not  from  St.  Augustine. 
This  is  study.  If  the  rule  of  manual  labor  brought  ma- 
terial prosperity  to  Europe,  that  of  study  spread 
spiritual  enlightenment.2  Both  labor  and  study  the 
novice  is  taught  to  dignify  and  sanctify  by  the  spirit 
of  prayer  in  which  he  undertakes  them.  But  while  he  is 
to  study  even  truths  of  the  natural  order  ultimately 
from  the  viewpoint  of  divine  faith,  it  is  especially  to  the 
mastery  of  the  truths  of  Christian  revelation  that  he  is 
to  devote  his  time  and  energy.  To  him  and  to  his  fel- 
lows does  Scripture  say:  "By  grace  you  are  saved 
through  faith."  3  Although  revealed  truth  cannot  be 
confined  within  the  limits  of  time  and  space,  yet  prac- 
tically its  tenets  may  be  grouped  under  two  heads :  God 
and  the  human  soul.  For  this  we  have  the  warrant  of 
St.  Augustine:  "It  is  God  and  my  soul  that  I  long  to 
know.  Nothing  more?  Absolutely  nothing." 4  Hence 
it  is  that  Rudolf  Eucken  writes  of  him  : 


1  De  Genesi  contra  Manichaeos,  lib,  ii,  15. 
*  Montalembert,  op.  cit,  pp.  33,  34,  331,  344. 
"Eph.  ii,  8. 

4  "Deum  et  animam  scire  cupio.     Nihilne  plus?     Nihil  omnino." 
— Soliloquia,  I,  2. 


44  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

"He  is  interested  not  so  much  in  the  world  as  in  the  action  of 
God  in  the  world,  and  particularly  upon  ourselves.  God  and  the 
soul:  these  are  the  only  objects  of  which  knowledge  is  needful; 
all  knowledge  becomes  ethico-religious  knowledge,  or  rather 
ethico-religious  conviction,  an  eager  faith  of  the  whole  man."1 

Although  "the  whole  Church,  both  teachers  and 
taught,  is  permeated  by  his  sentiments,"  2  yet  it  may 
be  well  to  cite  also  an  authority  nearer  our  own  day  in 
the  person  of  Cardinal  Newman.  Even  at  the  early  age 
of  fifteen,  he  too  was  absorbed  in  the  "thought  of  two 
and  two  only  absolute  and  luminously  self-evident  be- 
ings, myself  and  my  Creator."  Therefore,  with  the 
example  before  him  of  two  such  great  minds,  differing 
so  widely  in  race,  heredity,  environment,  experience, 
and  education,  and  yet  agreeing  on  the  studies  that  so 
intimately  concern  his  own  life,  the  novice  need  enter- 
tain no  fear  that  his  curriculum  is  narrow  and  narrow- 
ing. 

Even  the  old  Greek  philosophers  acknowledged  the 
contrary  to  be  the  case;  for  although  their  knowl- 
edge of  God  was  vague,  halting,  and  blended  with  error, 
yet  the  study  of  man  they  held  to  be  liberalizing. 
Wherefore  they  called  man  the  microcosm — the  world 
in  miniature — an  epitome  of  the  macrocosm — the  world 
writ  large.  If  man  would  fully  understand  himself,  he 
must  study  the  world  about  him,  since  the  mineral,  vege- 


1  The  Problem  of  Human  Life  as  Viewed  by  the  Or  eat  Thinkers 
from  Plato  to  the  Present   Time   (Die  Lebensanschauungen  der 
grossen  Denker)  tr.  W.  W.  S.  Hough  and  W.  R.  Boyce  Gibson, 
p.  224. 

2  Eugene  Portalie",  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  "St.  Augustine." 
8  Apologia  pro  Vita  sua,  p.  4. 


The  Curriculum  of  the  Novitiate.  45 

fable,  and  animal  kingdoms  are  all  summarized  in  him. 
Then  from  a  consideration  of  the  created  world  both 
within  him  and  outside  him,  he  can  ascend  to  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  Creator  of  all. 

3.  Besides  labor  and  study,  and  far  more  important 
than  either,  is  the  duty  of  prayer.  Even  when  viewed 
in  its  merely  human  aspect,  its  cultural  and  socializing 
influence  on  the  novice  is  undeniable.  Rooted  as  it  is  in 
the  principles  of  divine  faith,  it  bears  rich  fruitage  of 
courage,  confidence,  generosity,  and  perseverance.  It 
transforms  the  life  of  the  novice.  Of  its  scope,  the 
Saviour  Himself  has  said :  "Whatsoever  you  shall  ask 
the  Father  in  My  name,  that  will  I  do ;  that  the  Father 
may  be  glorified  in  the  Son."  * 

Prayer  may  be  of  two  kinds :  public  and  private.  Pri- 
vate prayer  as  exemplified  in  individual  meditation,  will 
be  considered  under  the  topic  of  method.  Of  public 
prayer  two  great  acts  are  required  daily  in  the  novi- 
tiate. One  is  the  conventual  or  community  Mass,  at 
which  all  the  members  are  bound  to  assist.  It  is  the 
supreme  act  of  homage  offered  by  the  novitiate  to  the 
Lord  of  hosts.  At  this  Mass  the  novices  receive  holy 
communion,  for  the  decree  of  Pope  Pius  X  concerning 
Daily  Communion,2  applies  in  a  special  way  to  religious 
houses.  The  other  great  act  of  divine  praise  is  the 
public  recital,  in  the  name  of  the  Church,  of  the  Divine 
Office,  or,  as  is  the  case  in  many  congregations,  of  the 
Office  of  the  Most  Blessed  Virgin.  Both  the  Mass  and 


xiv,   13. 
8  20  December,  1905. 


46  Thv  Religious  Novitiate. 

the  Office  are  acts  of  genuine  social  service.    Montalem- 
bert  writes  pertinently: 

"The  first  of  all  the  services  which  the  monks  have  conferred 
upon  Christian  society  was  that  of  praying — of  praying  much,  of 
praying  always  for  those  whose  prayers  were  evil  or  who  prayed 
not  at  all." 

And  these  prayers  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  faith- 
ful at  large: 

"Like  its  chiefs,  the  entire  mass  of  Christian  society,  during 
the  whole  period  of  the  middle  age,  showed  a  profound  confidence 
in  the  superior  and  invincible  power  of  monastic  prayer;  and  for 
this  reason  endowed  with  its  best  gifts  those  who  interceded  the 
best  for  it."  l 

If  the  flame  of  piety  is  to  burn  brightly,  it  must  be 
fed  assiduously.  According  to  the  mind  of  St.  Thomas, 
"study  especially  of  Holy  Scripture,  peculiarly  befits 
men  consecrated  to  a  life  of  contemplation."  It  re- 
veals to  them,  particularly  in  the  pages  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  perfection  for  which  they  should  strive. 
Hence  they  should  bring  to  it  an  attitude  of  mind  and  a 
disposition  of  heart  appropriate  to  their  state  of  life. 

"If  thou  didst  know  the  whole  Bible  outwardly,  and  the  sayings 
of  all  the  philosophers,  what  could  it  all  profit  thee  without 
charity  and  the  grace  of  God?"  .  .  . 

"He  that  would  fully  and  feelingly  understand  the  words  of 
Christ  must  study  to  conform  his  whole  life  to  that  of  Christ." 8 

Two  books  are,  therefore,  specially  commended  to  the 
devout  and  attentive  perusal  of  the  novice.  The  first 


1  Op.  cit.,  pp.  24,  27. 

2  The  Religious  State  (tr.  Procter),  p.  160. 
8  Imitation,  Bk.  1,  Chap.  I,  3,  2. 


The  Curriculum  of  the  Novitiate.  47 

is  Holy  Scripture,  particularly  the  New  Testament,  as 
containing  his  great  rule  of  life.  The  second  is  the  Imi- 
tation of  Christ  as  helping  him  to  acquire  the  spirit  in 
which  Scripture  should  be  studied. 

"The  philosophy  of  'The  Imitation'  may  be  summed  up  in  two 
words.  It  is  a  philosophy  of  Light  and  a  philosophy  of  Life: 
the  Light  of  Truth  and  the  Life  of  Grace.  Both  the  one  and  the 
other  a  Kempis  seeks  in  their  source  and  fountain-head.  He  does 
not  separate  them.  It  is  only  in  the  union  of  both  that  man 
attains  his  philosophic  ideal.  .  .  .  It  is  not  only  the  Light  of 
Truth;  it  is  also  the  Life  of  Grace.  This  life  consists  in  the 
practice  of  the  Christian  virtues;  the  practice  of  the  Christian 
virtues  leads  up  to  union  with  Christ,  and  union  with  Christ  is 
consummated  in  the  Holy  Eucharist."  1 

And  so  we  are  led  back  to  the  greatest  of  all  acts  of 
worship,  the  holy  sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  novice's 
great  model  of  immolation,  the  perennial  source  of  his 
self-denial  and  devotedness. 

Although  the  nature  and  the  duties  of  the  religious 
life  in  general  and  of  his  own  order  in  particular  must 
always  constitute  the  chief  study  of  the  novice,  yet,  by 
a  decree  of  27  August,  1910,  he  was  ordered  by  Pope 
Pius  X  to  give  several  hours  a  week  to  such  studies  as 
the  mother-tongue,  Latin  and  Greek,  the  reading  of  the 
Fathers  of  the  Church,  and  in  general  to  such  branches 
as  conformed  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  order  con- 
tinued to  exist.2  In  this  way  he  not  only  relieves  the 


1  Brother  Azarias,  Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism,  pp.  107, 
112. 

*The  decree  prescribes  private  study  for  an  hour  a  day  ex- 
cept on  feast  days,  and  lessons  of  one  hour  each  not  more  than 
three  times  a  week. 


48  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

mental  strain  incident  to  exclusively  spiritual  exercises, 
but  he  also  enables  his  superiors  to  judge  more  accu- 
rately of  his  talents  and  fitness  for  the  work  of  the 
order.1 

Article  IV. — Method  in  the  Novitiate. 

As  both  curriculum  and  methods  agree  in  being 
means  for  the  attainment  of  the  educational  ideal,  it  is 
difficult  to  draw  a  hard  and  fast  line  between  them.  Nor 
is  this  necessary.  In  its  relation  to  the  novice  the 
method  employed  in  the  novitiate  bears  two  aspects: 
it  is  individual  and  it  is  social.  In  its  individual  char- 
acter it  is  exemplified  in  two  of  the  daily  exercises :  self- 
examination  and  meditation. 

I. — 1.  Self-examination  may  be  general  or  particu- 
lar; when  general,  it  may,  in  turn,  look  forward  or  back- 
ward. When  it  looks  forward,  it  is  called  the  examen 
of  forethought,  and  is  made  at  the  beginning  of  the 
day.  It  forecasts,  in  the  light  of  experience,  the  diffi- 
culties which  the  novice  is  likely  to  meet  during  the 
day  and  the  opportunities  which  he  may  have  of  doing 
good.  The  exercise  concludes  with  intelligent  and  prac- 
tical resolutions  as  to  the  means  to  be  used  that  very 
day  both  in  order  to  guard  against  relapsing  into 
habitual  faults  and  to  derive  greater  merit  from  the 
opportunities  for  practising  virtue.  When  the  exam- 
ination looks  backward,  it  is  directed  upon  the  actions 
of  the  day  that  is  closing,  and  is  followed  by  sincere 


1  By  a  decree  of  19  March,  1603,  provision  was  made  for  suit- 
able recreation  in  all  novitiates. 


Method  in  the  Novitiate.  49 

sorrow  for  what  has  been  amiss  in  conduct  and  by  a 
firm  resolution  of  amendment.  How  profitable  these 
examinations  are  when  practised  rightly  and  persever- 
ingly,  appears  from  these  words  of  Thomas  a  Kempis : 

"If  only  thy  heart  were  right,  then  every  created  thing  would 
be  to  thee  a  mirror  of  life  and  a  book  of  holy  teaching.  There 
is  no  creature  so  little  and  so  vile  that  it  showeth  not  forth  the 
goodness  of  God." 1 

In  other  words,  these  searchings  of  the  soul  are  well 
adapted  to  develop  that  spiritual  sense  in  the  exercise 
of  which  the  religious  should  excel. 

"Only  when  truth  and  goodness  walk  hand  in  hand,  and  the 
heart  grows  apace  with  the  intellect,  does  the  soul  develop  into 
strong,  healthy  action.  .  .  .  Now,  the  Spiritual  Sense  takes 
in  all  the  truth,  goodness,  and  beauty  of  both  the  natural  and 
revealed  orders  and  views  them  in  the  light  of  Faith."2 

Different  from  these  general  examinations  in  its  im- 
mediate purpose  is  the  particular  examen.  By  means 
of  this  exercise  the  novice  seeks  to  acquire:  (a)  sys- 
tematic knowledge  of  his  ruling  passion  and  of  the 
means  to  combat  it  effectually;  (b)  the  necessary  grace 
to  apply  these  means  courageously  and  perseveringly. 
He  keeps  before  him  the  admonition  of  Thomas  a 
Kempis : 

"As  our  purpose  is,  so  will  our  progress  be;  and  there  is  need 
of  much  diligence  for  him  that  wisheth  to  advance  much. 
.  .  .  The  resolutions  of  the  just  depend  rather  on  the  grace  of 
God  than  on  their  own  wisdom;  and  they  always,  whatever  they 
take  in  hand,  put  their  trust  in  Him."  s 

1  Imitation,  Bk.  II,  Chap.  IV,  1. 
8  Brother  Azarias,  op.  cit.,  p.  4. 
•  Imitation,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  XIX,  2. 


50  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

Even  when  the  task  is  tedious  and  the  progress  slow, 
he  does  not  despond.  He  recalls  these  other  words : 

"If  every  year  we  rooted  out  one  fault,  we  should  soon  become 
perfect  men."1 

But  the  function  of  the  particular  examen  is  not 
purely  destructive;  it  is  also  constructive.  Were  the 
novice  merely  to  refrain  from  evil,  he  would  fulfil  but 
a  small  portion  of  his  duty.  He  must  learn  more  com- 
pletely the  lesson  conveyed  by  the  parable  of  the  talents. 
He  must  take  to  heart  these  words  from  the  homily  of 
St.  John  Chrysostom:2 

"He  that  hath  a  gift  of  word  and  teaching  to  profit  thereby, 
and  useth  it  not,  will  lose  the  gift  also;  but  he  that  giveth 
diligence  will  gain  to  himself  the  gift  in  more  abundance,  even 
as  the  other  loseth  what  he  hath  received.  But  not  to  this  is  the 
penalty  limited  for  him  that  is  slothful,  but  even  intolerable  is 
the  punishment,  and  with  the  punishment  the  sentence,  which  is 
full  of  a  heavy  accusation.  For  'cast  ye,'  saith  He,  'the  unprofit- 
able servant  into  outer  darkness;  there  shall  be  weeping  and 
gnashing  of  teeth.'  Seest  thou  how  not  only  the  spoiler  and  the 
covetous,  nor  only  the  doer  of  the  evil  things,  but  also  he  that 
doeth  not  good  things,  is  punished  with  extreme  punishment? 
.  .  .  The  talents  here  are  each  person's  ability.  .  .  .  For 
this  purpose  God  gave  us  speech,  and  hands  and  feet  and 
strength  of  body,  and  mind,  and  understanding,  that  we  might 
use  all  these  things,  both  for  our  own  salvation  and  our  neigh- 
bor's advantage."8 

Self-examination,  therefore,  whether  general  or  par- 
ticular, is  prescribed  for  the  novice  as  a  condition  of 
self-mastery.  In  virtue  of  our  common  human  nature, 


1  Id.,  Chap.  XI,  5. 
3  Matt,  xxv,  24-30. 

8  Homily  78,  Vol.  X,  Select  Library  of  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene 
Fathers,  pp.  470-472. 


Method  in  the  Novitiate.  51 

however,  it  becomes,  as  an  exercise  of  introspection,  a 
key  to  the  understanding  of  others  and  thereby  to  their 
direction  in  the  way  of  virtue.  In  his  own  measure  and 
degree,  as  he  is  faithful  to  the  lessons  of  the  Imitation 
will  the  novice  verify  in  his  own  person1  this  estimate 
pronounced  on  its  author: 

"He  probed  the  human  heart  to  its  lowest  depths  and  its  inmost 
folds;  he  searched  intentions  and  motives  and  found  self  lurking 
in  the  purest;  he  explored  the  windings  of  human  folly  and  human 
misery  and  discovered  them  to  proceed  from  self-love  and  self- 
gratification.  But  this  author  does  not  simply  lay  bare  the  sores 
and  wounds  of  poor  bleeding  human  nature.  He  also  prescribes 
the  remedy.  And  none  need  go  away  unhelped.  For  the  footsore 
who  are  weary  with  treading  the  sharp  stones  and  piercing  thorns 
on  the  highways  and  by-ways  of  life;  for  the  heart  aching  with 
pain  and  disappointment  and  crushed  with  a  weight  of  tribula- 
tions; for  the  intellect  parched  with  thirsting  after  the  fountain 
of  true  knowledge;  for  the  soul  living  in  aridity  and  dryness  of 
spirit;  for  the  sinner  immersed  in  the  mire  of  sin  and  iniquity, 
and  the  saint  earnestly  toiling  up  the  hill  of  perfection — for  all 
he  prescribes  a  balm  that  heals,  and  to  all  does  he  show  the  road 
that  leads  to  the  Life  and  the  Light."1 

2.  There  is  another  daily  exercise  of  the  novice  that 
emphasizes  the  individual  aspect  of  the  method  used  in 
the  novitiate.  This  is  meditation,  or  mental  prayer — 
a  sustained  interior  exercise  in  which  the  soul  applies 
itself  to  God.  Its  subject-matter  includes  all  the  truths 
of  divine  faith;  all  the  virtues  becoming  the  man,  the 
Christian,  and  the  religious ;  all  the  maxims  taught  by 
our  Lord  in  the  Gospel.  This  is,  so  to  say,  the  curric- 
ulum of  meditation.  Its  aim  is  first  the  sincere  amend- 


JCf.  Baldwin,  The  Individual  and  Society,  pp.  14-18;  23-26. 
a  Brother  Azarias,  op.  cit.,  pp.  123,  124-, 


52  Tke  Religiom  Novitiate. 

ment  of  the  life  of  the  novice,  and  then  the  complete  re- 
formation of  his  character  after  the  model  set  by  Jesus 
Christ.  Its  spirit  is  therefore  the  spirit  of  the  Saviour, 
the  spirit  of  faith;  for  Scripture  assures  us  that  "the 
just  man  liveth  by  faith."  *  In  its  method  it  either 
directly  or  indirectly  utilizes  all  the  powers  of  the  mind. 
We  should  then  a  priori  be  inclined  to  look  upon  it  as  a 
great  means  of  mental  and  spiritual  development.  And 
such  it  really  is  when  entered  upon  with  due  preparation 
and  prosecuted  with  unwearying  diligence.  Prepara- 
tion for  it  is  both  proximate  and  remote.  The  remote 
preparation  consists  in  living  the  life  of  faith,  in  guid- 
ing one's  conduct  by  the  principles  of  the  Gospel ;  the 
proximate  preparation  consists  in  acts  of  faith  in  God's 
presence.  For  this  purpose  "spiritual  reading"  is  most 
effective.  Besides  the  Bible  and  the  Imitation,  which  we 
have  already  mentioned,2  the  lives  of  the  saints  both  of 
the  Church  in  general  and  his  order  in  particular,  and 
treatises  on  the  virtues  of  the  Christian  and  the  religious 
life,  are  especially  recommended  to  the  novice.  But  he 
is  to  read  these  books  in  the  spirit  in  which  he  reads  the 
Office — reverently,  attentively,  piously  ('digne,  attente, 
devote').  Here  is  a  practical  exercise  in  apperception 
which  he  is  called  upon  to  perform  daily.  Lest  his  in- 
terest should  wane  or  his  affection  grow  slack,  he  is  to 
place  himself  in  a  sympathetic  attitude  when  he  begins 
to  read.  Every  teacher  will  appreciate  the  sound  psy- 
chology of  this  advice. 

1  Rom.  i,  17. 

'See  Art.  Ill,  "Curriculum  of  Novitiate." 


Method  in  the  Novitiate.  53 

"Before  reading,  place  yourself  in  the  presence  of  God;  say 
some  short  prayer  to  obtain  light  to  understand,  and  grace  to 
practise  what  you  will  read.  Never  read  through  curiosity,  and 
do  not  read  hurriedly;  stop  occasionally  to  relish  your  reading; 
examine  what  prevents  you  from  practising  what  you  read.  Read 
your  spiritual  book  as  you  would  a  letter  sent  by  our  divine  Lord 
to  make  known  His  holy  will." 

It  is  in  these  terms  that  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle  * 
gives  counsel  to  each  of  his  religious.  Again  he  asks : 

"What  fruit  do  you  derive  therefrom?  What  difficulties  do 
you  experience?  What  obstacles  do  you  put  in  the  way?  .  .  . 
Carefully  distinguish  between  reading  for  purposes  of  study  and 
spiritual  reading,  and  see  whether  you  observe  the  distinction."1 

Why  this  insistence  on  the  method  of  spiritual  read- 
ing? Why  this  effort  to  awaken  interest?  Because  it 
is  through  its  strong  appeal  to  the  emotions  that 
spiritual  reading  becomes  an  effective  aid  to  mental 
prayer.  The  whole  purpose  of  meditation  is  to  pro- 
mote the  ampler  development  of  the  spiritual  life.  Mere 
knowledge  of  revealed  truth  is  not  sufficient  to  attain 
this  end.  It  must  be  reinforced  by  strong  motives.  Pro- 
fessor Wundt  writes  :3 

"Those  combinations  of  ideas  and  feelings,  which  in  our  sub- 
jective apprehension  of  the  volition  are  the  immediate  antecedents 
of  the  act,  are  called  motives  of  volition.  Every  motive  may  be 
divided  into  an  ideational  and  an  affective  component.  The  first 
we  may  call  the  moving  reason,  the  second  the  impelling  force 
of  action.  When  a  beast  of  prey  seizes  his  victim,  the  moving 
reason  is  the  sight  of  the  same,  the  impelling  force  may  be  either 


1  Collection  of  Short  Treatises,  p.  136. 
3  Id.,  pp.  202,  203. 

8  Orundriss  der  Psychologic  (Outlines  of  Psychology),  tr.  C.  H, 
Judd,  pp.  185,  186, 


54  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

the  unpleasurable  feeling  of  hunger  or  the  race-hate  aroused  by 
the  sight.  The  reason  for  a  criminal  murder  may  be  theft, 
removal  of  an  enemy,  or  some  such  idea;  the  impelling  force  the 
feeling  of  want,  hate,  revenge,  or  envy." 

With  him  Cardinal  Newman  agrees  in  the  following 
passage,  which  further  suggests  how  meditation  can  be 
an  "interior  occupation": 

"Assent,  however  strong,  and  accorded  to  images  however  vivid, 
is  not  therefore  necessarily  practical.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is  not 
imagination  that  causes  action,  but  hope  and  fear,  likes  and  dis- 
likes, appetite,  passion,  affection,  the  stirrings  of  selfishness  and 
self-love.  What  imagination  does  for  us  is  to  find  a  means  of 
stimulating  those  motive  powers,  and  it  does  so  by  providing  a 
supply  of  objects  strong  enough  to  stimulate  them.  The  thought 
of  honor,  glory,  duty,  self-aggrandizement,  gain,  or  on  the  other 
hand  of  Divine  Goodness,  future  reward,  eternal  life,  per- 
severingly  dwelt  upon,  leads  us  along  a  course  of  action  corres- 
ponding to  itself,  but  only  in  case  there  be  that  in  our  minds 
which  is  congenial  to  it."  * 

Spiritual  reading  helps  to  furnish  thoughts  that  are 
"congenial"  to  the  divine  attributes.  Imagination  pic- 
tures their  concrete  setting  in  the  life  and  conduct  of 
our  Lord  while  on  earth.  We  thrill  with  gratitude  for 
His  loving  mercy,  with  sympathy  for  His  suffering, 
with  horror  for  sin  that  hounded  Him  to  death.  Medi- 
tation is  an  exercise  of  living  faith.  Such  faith  is,  ac- 
cording to  Cardinal  Newman,  a  twofold  experience.2 

"It  is  an  imaginative  experience,  realizing  religious  truths  and 
picturing  them  with  precise  details.  It  is  an  affective  experience, 
vivifying  these  images  and  their  interior  perceptions  with  all  the 
sap  of  religious  sentiment.  Such  reasoning  as  there  is,  is  almost 


1  Grammar  of  Assent,  pp.  79,  80. 
3  Id.,  Chap.  IX. 


Method  in  the  Novitiate.  55 

wholly  implicit  .  .  .  and  belongs  to  the  illative  sense.  .  .  . 
Note  how  this  analysis  is  verified  exactly  in  the  spirit  of  faith 
and  in  the  active  piety  which  are  the  special  source  of  our 
religious  experiences.  Here  in  particular  we  discover  the  pro- 
found psychology  of  the  classic  procedures  of  Christian  mysticism 
as  also  of  its  exercises,  whether  individual  or  collective.  We  may 
regard  the  Manresan,  the  Sulpitian  and  other  methods  of  medita- 
tion and  mental  prayer  as  methods  of  detailed  'realization*  of 
general  dogmas.1  This  reveals  to  view  the  whole  mechanism  and 
finality  of  the  'preludes,'  the  'application  of  the  senses/  and  of 
the  'affections  and  resolutions.'  Nothing  is  easier  than  to  sketch 
here  appropriate  illustrations  from  the  'Grammar  of  Assent.' 
Take  the  celebrated  meditation  on  the  'Two  Standards.'  Express 
it  in  Newman's  terms.  First  'realize'  the  two  camps  with  their 
respective  captains,  their  activity,  etc.  This  is  an  imaginative 
experience.  After  this,  or  even  at  the  same  time,  try  to  'realize' 
the  anti-Christian  sentiments  of  anger  and  hatred,  the  Christian 
sentiments  of  love,  devotedness,  etc.  Apply  these  reflections  to 
yourself;  excite  yourself  to  charity,  self-denial,  etc.  This  gives 
affective  experience.  Personal  arguments  drawn  from  your  needs 
and  tendencies,  from  your  inmost  desires  of  salvation  and  sanc- 
tification,  strengthen  and  orientate  these  'realizations.'  The  con- 
clusion [resolution  of  the  meditation]  should  spring  from  this 
interior  activity:  it  cannot  fail  to  be  a  deeper  realization  of  the 
supernatural  life,  marked  at  present  by  acts  of  faith  and  love, 
and  by  protestations  of  fidelity,  in  which  all  your  powers 
co-operate;  and  guaranteed  for  the  future  by  strong  resolutions. 
From  beginning  to  end  you  are  occupied  with  the  dynamic  force 
of  'real'  assents."* 

As  the  examens  are  daily  exercises  for  the  develop- 
ment of  self-mastery,  so  meditation  is  (a)  a  learning 
process  of  an  excellent  kind :  it  unfolds  the  inner  mean- 

JSee  also  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle's  Explanation  of  the 
Method  of  Mental  Prayer. 

'E.  Baudin,  "La  philosophic  de  la  Foi  chez  Newman,"  Revue 
de  Philosophic  (Sept.,  1906),  pp.  262,  263.  "Real"  and  "realiza- 
tion" are  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  defined  by  Cardinal  New- 
man in  "Grammar  of  Assent." 


56  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

ing  of  the  truths  of  faith.  It  is  (b)  a  lesson  in  motiva- 
tion, since  it  prompts  the  novice  to  follow  the  example 
of  the  Great  Teacher.  It  is  (c)  a  habit-builder,  since 
it  trains  to  ways  of  righteousness  and  sanctity.  It  is 
(d)  a  valuable  exercise  in  thinking.  Professor  Dewey1 
and  others  maintain  that  we  really  think  only  when  we 
have  a  definite  problem  to  solve,  for  which  our  ordinary 
habits  of  thinking  and  acting  prove  or  seem  inadequate. 
Now,  the  novice  finds  this  problem  set  him  in  medita- 
tion: "Why  is  it  that  I  have  not  acted,  do  not  act,  as 
my  Saviour  and  the  saints  have  done  in  like  circum- 
stances ?  What  are  the  obstacles  ?  How  shall  I  remove 
them?  What  are  my  present  resources?" 

Viewed  in  its  individual  aspect,  the  method  of  the 
novitiate  is  a  dynamic  factor  in  forming  the  personality 
of  the  novice. 

II. — But  the   method  has   likewise  its   social   value. 

This  also  bears  a  two-fold  character.  The  novice 
comes  into  intimate  personal  relations  with  (1)  his  su- 
periors, and  (£)  his  fellow-novices. 

1.  The  novice  master  gives  him  instruction,  counsel, 
and  commands.  On  his  part  the  novice  is  bound  to  obey. 
By  his  entrance  into  the  novitiate  he  has  proclaimed  his 
desire  and  his  intention  to  renounce  material  goods  by 
the  vow  of  poverty,  to  perfect  his  control  over  his  body 
by  the  vow  of  chastity.  Throughout  all  the  period  of 
his  probation  he  must  be  exercised  in  obedience;  for 
obedience  is  the  characteristic  vow  and  virtue  of  the 

TCf.  How  We  Think,  p.  205;  also  Colvin  and  Bagley,  op.  cit. 
Chap.  II;  and  "Thought"  in  Monroe's  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Novitiate.  57 

religious.  Without  obedience  no  solidarity  is  possible. 
Obedience  is  the  perfection  of  self-mastery.  It  is  the 
attribute  of  a  strong  man,  a  man  of  character.  Holy 
Writ  assures  us  that  its  practice  brings  victory.1 

2.  The  social  life  of  the  novice  is  also  developed  by 
the  action  of  his  fellow-religious.  They  warn  him  char- 
itably of  his  defects;  this  is  the  exercise  of  "fraternal 
correction."  They  share  together  their  meals,  their 
recreations,  and  their  studies.  From  day  to  day  he 
finds  his  personal  views  and  desires  taking  on  the  color 
of  the  group  of  which  he  has  become  a  member.  He 
becomes  more  closely  identified  with  the  order  in  spirit 
and  aim  and  method.  The  very  change  of  name  which 
is  customary  in  many  orders  and  congregations  when 
the  novice  is  first  clothed  with  the  religious  habit 2  is 
but  one  expression  of  this  community  of  sentiment. 
Like  the  first  Christians,  the  members  of  a  religious  in- 
stitute should  have  but  one  heart  and  one  soul.3 

A rticle  V. — The  Spirit  of  the  Novitiate. 

Detachment  from  worldly  goods,  subjection  of  the 
flesh  to  the  spirit,  submission  of  the  will  to  lawful  au- 
thority, and  all  for  God's  sake — these  must  characterize 
the  true  novice.  What  is  the  principle  that  shall  give 
life  and  sustenance  to  these  virtues?  It  is  the  spirit  of 
faith,  as  revealed  in  the  New  Testament.  It  includes 
an  attitude  and  a  habit.  As  an  attitude  it  inspires  the 


'Prov.  xxi,  28. 

J  Cf.  Heimbucher,  op.  cit.  p.  21. 

•Acts  iv,  32. 


58  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

novice  to  look  at  all  things  from  God's  point  of  view 
as  clearly  expressed  in  the  Gospel  maxims.  As  a  habit 
it  has  an  active  and  a  passive  reference.  In  its  active 
aspect  it  prompts  the  novice  to  do  all  his  actions  to 
promote  God's  glory,  to  fulfill  the  divine  will.1  Taken 
in  its  passive  sense  it  inclines  him  to  accept  all  the  bless- 
ings and  the  ills  of  his  life  and  state  as  coming  directly 
or  indirectly  from  his  Creator.  Sustained  by  the  word 
of  Scripture:  "To  them  that  love  God,  all  things  work 
together  unto  good,"  2  he  endeavors  to  advance  in  ways 
of  inward  peace  and  spiritual  joy.3 

The  immediate  effect  of  this  spirit  of  faith  operating 
in  the  novice  is  a  quickening  of  his  desire  to  prepare 
worthily  for  his  profession  as  a  religious.  If,  as  Her- 
bert Spencer  maintained,4  education  is  "preparation  for 
complete  living,"  the  novitiate  must  train  the  novice 
for  complete  living  as  a  religious,  for  the  proper  fulfill- 
ment of  the  duties  imposed  by  the  "state  of  perfec- 
tion." J  Self-examination  and  self-mastery  must  be  com- 
pleted by  self-realization.  This  can  be  accomplished 
only  through  sacrifice;  and  the  sacrifice  must  be  com- 
plete ;  it  must  be  a  holocaust.  To  this  end  three  means 


1 1  Cor.  x,  31. 

aRom.  viii,  28. 

8  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle  gives  his  Brothers  three  reasons 
for  acting  from  motives  of  faith:  1.  Because  actions  otherwise 
of  little  worth  are  thus  made  Christian;  2.  Because  this  is  the 
chief  means  of  sanctifying  them;  3.  Because  we  thus  participate 
in  the  dispositions  in  which  our  divine  Lord  performed  His 
actions. — Collection  of  Short  Treatises,  p.  117. 

'Education,  p.  30. 

BCf.  St.  Thomas  (tr.  Procter),  The  Religious  State,  p.  3. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Novitiate.  59 

are  indispensable,  according  to  St.  Thomas,  who  but  ex- 
presses in  this  matter  the  mind  of  the  Church. 

"The  things  to  be  first  given  up  are  those  least  closely  united 
to  ourselves.  Therefore,  the  renunciation  of  material  possessions, 
which  are  extrinsic  to  our  nature,  must  be  our  first  step  on  the 
road  to  perfection.  The  next  objects  to  be  sacrificed  will  be  those 
which  are  united  to  our  nature  by  a  certain  communion  and 
necessary  affinity.  .  .  .  Now,  amongst  all  relationships  the 
conjugal  tie  does,  more  than  any  other,  engross  men's  hearts. 
.  .  .  Hence,  they  who  are  aiming  at  perfection  must,  above 
all  things,  avoid  the  bond  of  marriage,  which,  in  a  pre-eminent 
degree,  entangles  men  in  earthly  concerns.  .  .  .  Therefore, 
the  second  means  whereby  a  man  may  be  more  free  to  devote 
himself  to  God,  and  to  cleave  more  perfectly  to  Him,  is  by  the 
observance  of  perpetual  chastity.  But  continence  possesses  the 
further  advantage  of  affording  a  peculiar  facility  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  perfection.  For  the  soul  is  hindered  in  its  free  access 
to  God  not  only  by  the  love  of  exterior  things,  but  much  more 
by  force  of  interior  passions." * 

"It  is  not  only  necessary  for  the  perfection  of  charity  that  a 
man  should  sacrifice  his  exterior  possessions;  he  must  also,  in  a 
certain  sense,  relinquish  himself.  .  .  .  This  practice  of  salu- 
tary self-abnegation  and  charitable  self-hatred  is,  in  part,  neces- 
sary for  all  men  in  order  to  salvation,  and  is  partly  a  point  of 
perfection.  .  .  .  It  is  in  the  nature  of  divine  love  that  he  who 
loves  should  belong,  not  to  himself,  but  to  the  one  beloved.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  that  self-abnegation  and  self-hatred  be  pro- 
portionate to  the  degree  of  divine  love  existing  in  an  individual 
soul.  It  is  essential  to  salvation  that  a  man  should  love  God  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  make  Him  his  end,  and  to  do  nothing  which 
he  believes  to  be  opposed  to  the  Divine  love.  Consequently,  self- 
hatred  and  self-denial  are  necessary  for  salvation.  .  .  .  But 
in  order  to  attain  perfection,  we  must  further,  for  the  love  of 
God,  sacrifice  what  we  might  lawfully  use,  in  order  thus  to  be 
more  free  to  devote  ourselves  to  Him.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
self-hatred  and  self-denial  pertain  to  perfection.  .  .  .  Now, 
the  more  dearly  a  thing  is  loved  according  to  nature,  the  more 

'Op.  cit.,  pp.  26-28. 


60  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

perfect  it  is  to  despise  it  for  the  sake  of  Christ.  Nothing  is 
dearer  to  any  man  than  the  freedom  of  his  will.  .  .  .  Just, 
therefore,  as  a  person  who  relinquishes  his  wealth  and  leaves 
those  to  whom  he  is  bound  by  natural  ties,  denies  these  things 
and  persons;  so,  he  who  renounces  his  own  will,  which  makes  him 
master,  does  truly  deny  himself.  .  .  .  [Religious]  make  a 
complete  sacrifice  of  their  own  will  for  the  love  of  God,  submit- 
ting themselves  to  another  by  the  vow  of  obedience,  of  which 
virtue  Christ  has  given  as  a  sublime  example."  * 

Since  the  religious  life  is,  according  to  St.  Thomas, 
"the  state  of  perfection,"  those  who  profess  it  are  bound 
to  take  the  most  perfect  means  of  reaching  perfection. 
Hence  he  adds : 

"The  vow  which,  of  all  the  three  religious  vows,  belongs  most 
peculiarly  to  the  religious  life,  is  that  of  obedience.  .  .  .  Now, 
since  the  body  is  worth  more  than  material  goods,  the  vow  of 
chastity  is  superior  in  merit  to  that  of  poverty,  but  the  vow  of 
obedience  is  of  more  value  than  either  of  the  other  two.  .  .  . 
Again,  the  vow  of  obedience  is  more  universal  than  that  of  either 
poverty  or  chastity,  and  hence  it  includes  them  both."2 

Such,  then,  is  the  character  of  the  holocaust  which 
the  novice  is  preparing  to  offer.  And  just  as  the  work 
of  educating  the  child  joins  two  factors,  viz.,  his  native 
instincts,  on  the  one  hand,  and  proper  intellectual  and 
moral  development  on  the  other,  so  too  the  training  of 
the  novice  is  a  work  in  which  his  native  endowments  are 
corrected  and  refined  and  fructified  by  the  action  of 
divine  grace.  In  proportion  as  he  freely  and  fully  re- 
sponds to  his  vocation  does  he  advance  in  the  "way  of 
perfection." 

'Id.,  pp.  41-46. 
•Id.,  pp.  51,  62. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Novitiate.  61 

"Just  as  in  genius  one  part  must  be  ascribed  to  the 
faculties  of  the  man  and  another  to  a  superior  (element 
which  the  pagans  called  destiny,  but  Christians  would 
designate  by  the  name  of  vocation;  so  sanctity  also  is 
made  up  of  two  elements  which,  although  they  compene- 
trate,  may  yet  be  distinguished ;  viz.,  the  call  of  God  and 
the  effort  of  man."  l 

To  strengthen  his  spirit  of  faith  together  with  its 
expression  in  the  spirit  of  sacrifice,  therefore,  the  novice 
makes  use  of  both  natural  and  supernatural  means.  He 
may  take  courage  from  the  words  of  the  great  Fara- 
day: 

"/  will  simply  express  my  strong  belief  that  that  point  of  self- 
education  which  consists  in  teaching  the  mind  to  resist  its  desires 
and  inclinations,  until  they  are  proved  to  be  right,  is  the  most 
important  of  all,  not  only  in  things  of  natural  philosophy,  but  in 
every  department  of  daily  life."2 

A  like  thought  is  expressed  in  a  recent  work  of  peda- 
gogy : 

"No  conception  of  modern  [?]  pedagogy  is  truer  to  fact  or 
safer  in  principle  than  this,  that  the  vital  function  of  public 
schooling  is  to  raise  the  level  of  society  in  conduct  and  ideals. 
This  is  done,  primarily,  by  improving  the  individual  and  for  his 
individual  need ;  but  for  the  common  good  also." 8 

The  novice,  therefore,  holds  fast  to  divine  faith, 
the  root  of  perfection.  He  gives  real  practical  assent 


'P.  Chauvin,  O.  S.  B.,  Qu'est-ce  qu'un  Saint?  p.  23. 

3  Lecture  delivered  at  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain, 
"Observations  on  the  Education  of  the  Judgment,"  p.  205;  in 
The  Culture  Demanded  by  Modern  Life  (ed.  E.  L.  Youmans). 

'  Boone,  Science  of  Education,  p.  342. 


62  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

to  the  words  of  Cardinal  Newman:  "He  who  begins 
with  faith  will  end  in  unspotted  and  entire  holiness." 
Because  his  faith  is  living,  he  is  faithful  to  his  spiritual 
exercises,  especially  to  mental  prayer.  When  he  finds 
sacrifice  difficult,  he  recalls  the  Saviour's  promise :  "Be 
thou  faithful  until  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  the  crown 
of  life."  2  He  becomes  daily  more  adept  in  the  great 
process  of  education;  viz.,  the  substitution  of  remote 
and  spiritual  ends,  for  those  which  are  present  and 
sensile.  He  thus  attains  to  a  fuller  perception  of  the 
real  values  of  life.  He  appreciates  these  words  uttered 
by  the  President  of  Bowdoin  College,  and  realizes  their 
truth  by  service  of  others  for  God's  sake: 

"You  can  never  be  placed  in  circumstances  so  unfavorable,  you 
can  never  be  brought  in  contact  with  a  person  so  mean  and 
hateful,  that  this  devotion  to  the  loving  will  of  God  as  applied 
to  those  circumstances  and  that  person  will  not  give  you  strength 
to  do  the  right,  true,  noble,  loving  act,  and  so  to  overcome  evil 
with  good."8 

We  may  sum  up  this  article  in  the  following  conclu- 
sion: The  spirit  of  the  novitiate  is  the  spirit  of  faith. 
Its  effect  is  to  produce  a  spirit  of  diligent  preparation 
for  the  three  religious  vows,  poverty,  chastity,  and 
obedience.  Though  all  three  demand  sacrifice,  obedi- 
ence requires  complete  immolation  of  self.  It  is  there- 
fore the  crowning  act  of  devotion  to  God's  service.  It 


1  Plain  and  Parochial  Sermons,  Vol.  V,  p.  159. 
*Apoc.  ii,  10. 

•  W.  DeWitt  Hyde,  The  College  Man  and  the  College  Woman, 
p.  147. 


The  Spirit  of  the  Novitiate.  63 

is  also,  according  to  the  teaching  of  the  Saviour  Him- 
self, the  indispensable  condition  of  a  fruitful  life. 

"Unless  the  grain  of  wheat  falling  into  the  ground  die,  itself 
remaineth  alone ;  but  if  it  die,  it  bringeth  forth  much  fruit."  * 

Moreover  the  novice  is  constantly  profiting  by  the 
good  example  of  his  associates.  The  natural  value  of 
such  a  stimulus  has  been  a  subject  of  study  for  many 
psychologists  and  sociologists  in  recent  years.  Thus 
Camille  Bos  writes : 

"A  man's  belief  is  not  merely  his  work;  it  is  also  in  part  deter- 
mined by  social  influence.  In  return,  when  once  this  belief  has 
been  established,  it  will  not  be  limited  in  its  effects  to  the  indi- 
vidual who  affirms  it;  it  will  also  react  upon  others.  .  .  .  This 
reinforcement  will  be  all  the  greater,  the  more  uniformity  of  belief 
there  is  among  the  individuals."2 

With  increased  certitude  as  well  as  with  fresh  delight 
does  the  novice  turn  from  such  passages  to  the  pane- 
gyric of  divine  faith  which  he  reads  in  the  eleventh 
chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  As  the  one  God 
is  the  author  of  both  nature  and  grace,  and  "grace  pre- 
supposes nature,"  so  the  novice  entertains  no  doubt 
that  loyalty  to  the  principles  of  divine  faith  will  mul- 
tiply and  enrich  the  efficacy  of  even  human  faith.  With 
the  Apostles  he  prays  to  the  "Author  and  Finisher  of 
faith"  :3  O  Lord,  "increase  our  faith."  4 


1  John  xii,  24,  25. 

2  "La  Port6e  Sociale  de  la  Croyance","  Revue  Philosophique,  Vol. 
XLVI,  p.  293. 

8  Heb.  xii,  2. 
4  Luke  xvii,  5. 


64  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

Article  VI. — Limitations  of  the  Novitiate. 

These  limitations  may  be  grouped  under  two  heads, 
although,  by  a  kind  of  spiritual  osmosis,  they  tend  to 
compenetrate ;  viz.,  such  as  are  predominantly  indi- 
vidual and  such  as  are  predominantly  social. 

1.  Such  limitations  as  concern  the  individual  novice 
may  affect  him  (a)  as  Christian,  (b)  as  candidate  for  a 
given  order. 

(a)  Only  Catholics  may  be  novices.  As  we  have  al- 
ready seen,  this  restriction  is,  according  to  the  admis- 
sion of  Camille  Bos,1  a  decided  advantage,  since  uni- 
formity of  faith  in  the  members  of  a  group  tends  nat- 
urally to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  group.  More- 
over, if  a  postulant  were  to  be  notably  lacking  in  the 
Christian  spirit  or  in  an  earnest  will  to  acquire  it,  he 
would  be  manifestly  unfit  for  the  novitiate,  since  it  is 
the  function  of  the  novitiate  to  train  for  the  state  of 
"religious  perfection."  The  principle  of  development, 
which  plays  so  vital  a  part  in  the  educational  psy- 
chology of  our  age,  demands  now  as  ever  that  the  less 
perfect  precede  the  more  perfect.  The  postulant  must 
therefore  have  given  proof  of  his  firm  will  to  keep  the 
commandments  before  he  can  be  allowed  to  bind  himself 
to  the  observance  of  the  Gospel  counsels.  Our  Lord 
Himself  has  sanctioned  this  course.  It  was  only  after 
the  young  man  had  assured  Him  that  he  had  kept  all 
the  commandments  from  his  early  years,  that  the 
Saviour  said  to  him:  "If  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go,  sell 


1  See  p.  63,  above. 


Limitations  of  the  Novitiate.  65 

what  thou  hast  and  give  to  the  poor  .  .  . ;  and  come, 
follow  Me."  l 

(b)  Besides  these  general  conditions,  there  may  be 
others  arising  from  the  special  mission  of  the  order 
into  which  the  candidate  seeks  admission.  St.  Benedict 
Joseph  Labre  possessed  not  only  the  ordinary  virtues 
of  a  good  Christian,  but  many  of  the  traits  which  dis- 
tinguish the  saint  when  he  sought  entrance  into  the  re- 
ligious life.  But  though  his  holiness  was  beyond  ques- 
tion, the  superiors  deemed  him  an  unsuitable  subject. 
The  novice  must  be  capable  of  adjusting  himself  to 
the  life  and  the  work  of  the  order. 

2.  In  its  social  aspect  the  novitiate  calls  for  the 
"common  life,"  which,  says  Heimbucher,  "is  strictly 
prescribed  in  all  congregations."  If  the  candidate 
shows  lack  of  adaptability  to  this  requirement,  he  is 
assumed  not  to  possess  a  religious  vocation.  By  the 
Norm®  (regulations)  of  1901  the  Holy  See  reserves  to 
itself  the  right  of  dispensing  from  the  disability  of  age, 
a  candidate  under  fifteen  years  or  over  thirty,  who 
seeks  admission  to  the  novitiate  of  a  religious  'congre- 
gation.' This  restriction  has  bearings  that  are  both 
psychological  and  sociological.  Candidates  who  have 
not  attained  their  fifteenth  year  belong  to  the  early 
adolescent  period  and  often  lack  the  maturity  of  judg- 
ment requisite  in  a  novice;  while  those  who  are  over 


1Matt.  xix,  21. 

*Streng  1st  in  alien  Kongregationen  das  gemeinsame  Leben 
vorgeschrieben."  Op.  cit.,  p.  37.  On  the  eremitical  life,  see  Heim- 
bucher, op.  cit.,  pp.  41  ff. 


66  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

thirty  are  wanting  in  mental  plasticity  and  have  be- 
come "set"  in  their  ways.  They  have  passed  the  limit 
that  Professor  James  l  fixed  for  "old  fogeyism."  The 
average  novice  must  break  old  habits  and  form  new 
ones.  He  is  counselled  to  make  a  general  confession  of 
the  sins  of  his  whole  life  soon  after  his  entrance  into 
the  novitiate.  Seeing  his  own  many  faults  and  failings 
as  contrasted  with  God's  generous  favors  to  him,  he  is 
moved  to  profound  sorrow  for  all  that  is  evil  in  his 
past  life,  and  to  firm  resolutions  of  amendment.  This 
is  the  phenomenon  known  as  "conversion,"  2  the  begin- 
ning of  the  novice's  "first  fervor."  Under  the  impulse 
of  deep  emotion  like  this,  together  with  the  remark- 
able change  in  his  environment,  old  habits  may  be  in- 
hibited with  relative  ease  by  the  substitution  of  the 
newer  and  nobler  activities  subserved  by  regular  ob- 
servance. 

On  its  sociological  side  this  restriction  as  to  age  is  a 
natural  precaution  to  secure  peace,  good-will,  and 
hearty  co-operation  among  the  novices — all  these  dis- 
positions being  correlative  in  the  order  of  nature  to 
the  operation  of  divine  charity  in  the  realm  of  grace. 

But  the  social  aspect  of  the  novitiate  is  expressed 
also  in  the  formal  acceptance  of  the  candidate  by  the 
order;  for  this  act  is  a  contract  drawn  between  the 


1  Principles  of  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  p.  110.  See  also  Halleck, 
Education  of  the  Central  Nervous  System,  Chaps.  II,  III. 

a  Cf.  Starbuck,  "Psychology  of  Religious  Experience,  Chaps. 
II-XIII.  Cf.  H.  Esmond  (tr.  H.  C.  Corrance),  The  Mystery  of 
Newman,  pp.  177-195.  The  "Confessions"  of  St.  Augustine  is 
classic. 


Limitations  of  the  Novitiate.  67 

novice  and  his  religious  superiors  as  representing  the 
order.  It  entails  on  the  novice  the  subordination  of 
his  ideals  and  purposes  to  those  for  which  his  society 
lives  and  labors.  Hence  it  is  that  he  is  now  limited,  or 
his  activity  is  defined,  by  the  aim,  the  curriculum,  the 
method,  and  the  spirit  of  the  order  whose  novitiate 
he  has  entered.  According  to  a  decree  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  novitiate  must  last  for  a  minimum  period 
of  one  year,  which  may,  however,  be  extended  to  two 
or  three  years.  By  fixing  the  minimum  age  of  religious 
profession  at  sixteen,  the  same  Council  virtually  placed 
the  age  requirement  for  the  admission  of  a  novice  to 
an  'order'  at  fifteen  or  at  fourteen  years. 

3.  (a)  The  limitations  of  the  novitiate  may  be  con- 
sidered also  with  reference  to  some  of  the  great  aims 
proposed  for  the  educative  process.  Prominent  among 
these  is  knowledge.  The  knowledge  required  for  ad- 
mission to  the  novitiate  is  first,  all  that  is  required  by 
the  profession  of  the  Christian  faith  or  is  in  consonance 
with  that  profession.  In  the  next  place,  it  is  deter- 
mined by  the  special  works  of  charity  for  one's  neigh- 
bor which  constitute  the  peculiar  function  of  the  order. 
Aptness  to  acquire  the  necessary  knowledge  is  a  quali- 
fication which  every  candidate  must  possess. 

(b)  Moral  development,  or  good  character,  we  have 
seen  to  be  a  fundamental  requirement  in  every  teacher, 
in  every  normal  school  student.  It  is  doubly  requisite 
in  the  novice,  since  he  is  preparing  to  embrace  a  life 
of  perfection.  Were  he  to  lack  this  qualification  he 
could  not  be  even  a  good  Christian.  Herbart  went  so 


68  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

far  as  to  maintain  that  the  "term  virtue  expressed  the 
whole  function  of  education." 

(c)  To  be  equipped  to  labor  with  great  effectiveness 
for  souls,  the  novice  needs  that  social  grace  which  we 
call  "culture."  For  entrance  into  the  novitiate  this 
is  not  indeed  indispensable.  By  cherishing  fidelity  to 
the  religious  exercises  and  by  developing  that  spirit  of 
faith  which  reveals  to  him  in  every  neighbor  a  member 
of  Christ's  mystical  body,  the  novice  will  acquire  a 
real  vital  culture.  For  true  culture  is  not  merely  "ac- 
quaintance with  the  best  that  has  been  known  and  said," 
as  Matthew  Arnold  thought,  nor  even  "the  disinter- 
ested endeavor  after  man's  perfection,"  as  he  also  sur- 
mised.2 It  includes  also  that  special  charm  which  comes 
from  possessing  the  spirit  of  Him  who  drew  all  things 
to  Himself.3 

4.  To  certain  minds  the  most  serious  limitations  of 
the  novitiate,  arise  from  the  vows  of  religion  for  which 
the  novitiate  prepares.  Rosenkranz  4  goes  so  far  as  to 
charge  those  who  make  such  vows  with  going  directly 
counter  to  the  religion  which  they  profess : 

"Christian  monachism  ...  in  merely  renouncing  the  world 
by  the  three  religious  vows  instead  of  conquering  it  and  gaining 

*Lange  and  De  Garmo,  Herbart's  Outlines  of  Educational 
Doctrine,  p.  17. 

8  Culture  and  Anarchy,  Preface,  p.  xxxiv. 

'John  xii,  32.  See  also  Newman's  "Idea  of  a  Saint"  in  Dis- 
courses Addressed  to  Mixed  Congregations,  pp.  94,  95;  Dr.  Shields, 
Psychology  of  Education,  Lesson  XXIV. 

4  Philosophy  of  Education  (tr.  A.  C.  Brackett),  p.  254;  Inter- 
national Science  Series. 


Limitations  of  the  Novitiate.  69 

possession  of  it,    ...    contradicts  the  very  principle  of  Chris- 
tianity." 

Is  this  indictment  true?  Let  us  weigh  the  testimony 
of  an  acknowledged  authority: 

"The  full  and  permanent  resignation  of  that  which  for  the 
majority  of  men  makes  life  desirable,  has  a  power  of  attraction 
only  for  the  rarest  natures,  and  for  this  very  reason  the  ascetic 
type  will  never  lose  its  honorable  position  among  the  people,  but 
will  be  newly  produced  and  newly  honored  in  every  age;  and  it 
is  not  the  most  enlightened  but  the  darkest  ages  of  history  in 
which  men  so  forget  their  own  deeply  hidden  yearning  for 
spiritual  freedom  that  they  fail  to  recognize  those  who  overcome 
the  world  as  social  assets  of  the  first  rank.  .  .  .  The  radicalism 
and  individualism  of  our  age  has  not  the  faintest  idea  how  deeply 
all  the  victories  of  personal  freedom  over  the  omnipotence  of  the 
State,  or  the  so-called  rights  of  men,  are  linked  up  with  this  much 
scorned  retirement  from  the  world,  which  has  brought  personality 
to  its  highest  concentration  and  raised  spiritual  life  above  all 
other  aims.  It  was  doubtless  the  fervor  and  intensity  with  which 
whole  groups  of  individuals  left  domestic  and  social  life  in  order 
to  come  entirely  to  themselves,  which  first  made  men  conscious,  in 
the  most  impressive  manner,  that  man  has  a  right  to  himself — 
that  there  is  a  holiness  of  inner  life  and  effort,  in  which  society 
and  the  State  have  no  right  to  interfere.  .  .  .  Thus  these 
ascetic  institutions,  on  closer  study,  reveal  themselves  as  a  most 
powerful  support  for  everything  which  one  may  call  character, 
and  a  pillar  of  that  great  and  true  resistance  to  all  that  is  merely 
tangible  and  useful,  upon  which,  ultimately,  everything  depends 
which  makes  life  worth  living  and  lends  men  real  power  over 
material  things."  J 

There  is  the  great  law  of  charity  formulated  by  our 
Saviour:  "I  give  you  a  new  commandment  that  you 
love  one  another  as  I  have  loved  you,"  2  illustrated  in 

1  Foerster,  Marriage  and  the  Se$  Problem,  pp.  142-145, 
3  John  xiii,  34. 


70  TJie  Religious  Novitiate. 

the  parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan,1  confirmed  by 
divine  example,2  and  sanctioned  by  the  sentence  which 
the  great  Judge  is  to  pronounce  on  the  last  day.3 

A  more  violent  attack  than  that  of  Professor  Rosen- 
kranz  comes  from  Sir  Francis  Galton.4  It  is  directed 
against  a  doctrine  taught  explicitly  and  emphatically 
by  Christ  Himself,  a  doctrine  that  is  fundamental  in 
the  religious  life: 

"The  long  period  of  the  dark  ages  under  which  Europe  has 
lain  is  due,  I  believe  in  a  very  considerable  degree,5  to  the 
celibacy  enjoined  by  religious  orders  on  their  votaries  [sic]. 
Whenever  a  man  or  a  woman  was  possessed  of  a  gentle  nature 
that  fitted  him  or  her  to  deeds  of  charity,  to  meditation,  to  litera- 
ture, or  to  art,  the  social  condition  of  the  time  was  such  that  they 
had  no  refuge  elsewhere  than  in  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  But 
the  Church  chose  [sic]  to  preach  and  exact  celibacy.  The  conse- 
quence was  that  these  gentle  natures  had  no  continuance,  and 
thus,  by  a  policy  so  singularly  unwise  and  suicidal  that  I  am 


1  Luke  x,  25-27. 

3  John  xiii,  15. 

8  Matt,  xxv,  31-46. 

4  Hereditary  Genius,  pp.  357,  358.     Sir  Francis  Galton  is  the 
"father  of  modern  eugenics."     It  is  pertinent  to  recall  the  words 
of  the  late  T.  J.  Gerrard,  S.  J.   ("Eugenics,"  Vol.  XVI,  Catholic 
Encyclopedia):     "The  root  difference  between  Catholic  teaching 
and  that  of  modern  eugenics  is  that  the  one  places  the  final  end 
of  man  in  eternal  life,  whilst  the  other  places  it  in  civic  worth. 
The   effectual   difference   is   that   the   Church   makes   bodily   and 
mental  culture  subservient  to  morality,  whilst  modern  eugenics 
makes  morality  subservient  to  bodily  and  mental  culture.    .    .    . 
Moreover,   since   the   most   necessary   and   most   difficult   eugenic 
reforms  consist  in  the  control  of  the  sex  appetite,  the  practice 
of  celibacy  is  an  important  factor  in  race  culture.   It  is  the  stand- 
ing example  of  a  Divinely  aided  will  holding  the  sensual  passion 
in  check." 

5  One  may  be  pardoned  for  dissenting  from  the  author's  punc- 
tuation here. 


Limitations  of  the  Novitiate.  71 

hardly  able  to  speak  of  it  without  impatience,  the  Church  brutal- 
ized the  breed  of  our  forefathers.  She  acted  precisely  as  if  she 
had  aimed  at  selecting  the  rudest  portion  of  the  community  to  be, 
alone,  the  parents  of  future  generations.  She  practised  the  arts 
which  breeders  would  use,  who  aimed  at  creating  ferocious,  cur- 
rish, and  stupid  natures.  No  wonder  that  club-law  prevailed  over 
Europe;  the  wonder  rather  is  that  enough  good  remained  in  the 
veins  of  Europeans  to  enable  their  race  to  rise l  to  its  present 
very  moderate  level  of  natural  [sic]  morality." 

Were  these  words  to  be  taken  at  their  face  value,  edu- 
cation as  a  real  institution  of  society  would  be  impos- 
sible. It  would  exist  only  as  the  idle  dream  of  a  phi- 
losopher, if  indeed  a  philosopher  could  be  found  under 
such  conditions.  But  there  is  another  side  to  be  con- 
sidered. 

"Now,  the  noblest  works  for  the  good  of  others  in  which  man 
can  be  engaged  fall  under  these  three  classes:  that  of  maintain- 
ing and  propagating  religion;  that  of  forming  the  human  char- 
acter by  education;  that  of  administering  to  human  infirmities  by 
acts  of  mercy.  And  the  evidence  of  history,  by  induction  from 
many  times  and  countries,  is  this,  that  wherever  the  Virginal 
Life  does  not  exist  as  an  institution,  these  works,  if  pursued,  are 
only  pursued  as  a  profession.  They  may  be  followed  with  much 
zeal  and  ability,  and  even  with  considerable  success;  but  still  it 
will  be  as  a  means  of  livelihood,  not  for  the  sake  of  others,  but 
for  the  sake  of  self.  Remuneration  in  some  shape  will  be  their 
motive  power.  And  no  less  does  it  follow,  from  the  evidence  of 
history,  that  where  the  Virginal  Life  is  cultivated,  and  exhibits 
itself  in  various  institutions,  it  will  throw  itself  especially  upon 
these  three  classes  of  works.  The  dedication  and  sacrifice  which 
lie  at  the  root  of  it  will  communicate  themselves  to  these  works, 
as  conducted  by  it,  will  give  to  them  a  high  and  superhuman 
character,  a  power  of  attraction  over  the  hearts  of  men,  which 

1  The  student  of  logic  may  find  it  difficult  to  conceive  how,  in 
view  of  Galton's  premises,  they  could  rise  at  all.  The  author  is 
covertly  admitting  the  influence  of  another  factor  than  heredity. 


72  The  Religious  Novitiate. 

come  from  that  divine  Original  of  sacrifice,  whose  signet  is  the 
Virginal  Life.  And  in  this  case  no  human  remuneration  will  be 
the  spring  of  these  works;  neither  praise,  nor  power,  nor  wealth, 
nor  pleasure  will  call  them  forth  or  reward  them.  Rather  they 
will  flourish  amid  poverty,  self-denial,  and  humility,  in  those  who 
exercise  them,  and  be  the  fruit  not  of  political  economy,  but  of 
charity."  1 

Even  Sir  Francis  Galton  seems  to  have  had  a  glimpse 
of  the  natural  aspect  of  this  truth,  for  he  confesses : 

"A  man  who  has  no  children  is  likely  to  do  more  for  his  profes- 
sion and  to  devote  himself  more  thoroughly  to  the  good  of  the 
public  than  if  he  had  them.  A  very  gifted  man  will  almost  always 
rise,  as  I  believe,  to  eminence;  but  if  he  is  handicapped  with  the 
weight  of  a  wife  and  children  in  the  race  of  life,  he  cannot  be 
expected  to  keep  as  much  in  the  front  as  if  he  were  single."  2 

Another  quotation  may  be  given  in  answer  to  the 
objection  raised  by  Rosenkranz: 

"A  great  Christian  writer,  who  stood  between  the  old  pagan 
world  and  the  new  society  which  was  taking  its  place,  and  who 
was  equally  familiar  with  both,  made,  near  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  the  following  observation:3  'The  Greeks  have  had  some 
men,  though  it  was  but  few,  among  them,  who,  by  force  of  phi- 
losophy, came  to  despise  riches;  and  some  too  who  could  control 
the  irascible  part  of  man;  but  the  flower  of  Virginity  was  nowhere 
to  be  found  among  them.  Here  they  always  gave  precedence  to 
us,  confessing  that  to  succeed  in  such  a  thing  was  to  be  superior 
to  nature  and  more  than  man.  Hence  their  profound  admiration 
for  the  whole  Christian  people.  The  Christian  host  derived  its 
chief  luster  from  this  portion  of  its  ranks.' " 4 

1  T.  W.  Allies,  op.  cit.,  pp.  380,  381. 

2  Op.  cit.,  p.  330. 

8  St.  John  Chrysostom,  Vol.  XLVIII,  p.  533,  "De  Virginitate," 
Patroloqia  Oraeca.  The  translation  of  De  Virginitate  is  omitted 
from  "Select  Library  of  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers."  See 
comment  in  American  Ecclesiastical  Review,  Vol.  XXIV,  p.  210 
(Feb.,  1901). 

*  T.  W,  Allies,  op.  cit.,  pp,  381,  382. 


Summary.  73 

As  to  obedience,  it  will  suffice  to  note  that  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  highest  ideal  officially  proposed  to  the  public 
school,  viz.,  social  service,  is  impossible  without  respect 
for  lawfully  constituted  authority.  This  is  the  natural 
value  of  obedience.  Father  Faber  sketches  its  super- 
natural significance  in  the  following  words: 

"Monks  and  nuns  have  given  up  their  liberty  by  the  heroism  of 
the  vows.  .  .  .  Theirs  is  a  glorious  captivity,  in  which  super- 
natural charity  has  bound  them  hand  and  foot,  and  handed  them 
over  to  the  arms  of  their  Creator.  They  have  used  the  original 
liberty  He  gave  them  in  the  grandest  of  ways,  by  voluntarily  sur- 
rendering it." ' 

Article  VII. — Summary. 

The  novitiate  is  a  period  (1)  of  preparation,  (£) 
for  the  "religious  life,"  which,  in  the  words  of  St. 
Thomas,  is  (3)  a  "state  of  perfection."  The  novice, 
by  appropriate  spiritual  exercises  of  prayer  and  self- 
denial,  as  also  by  acts  of  Christian  charity,  must  de- 
velop the  habits  that  become  him  as  (1)  creature,  (2) 
man,  (3)  Christian,  and  (4)  religious.  To  prepare  for 
his  "profession"  as  religious  he  practices  self-examina- 
tion and  seeks  by  mental  prayer  to  model  his  life  after 
that  of  his  divine  Exemplar.  In  proportion  as  he  be- 
comes more  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  principles  of 
the  religious  life  in  general  and  with  the  aims  of  his 
own  order  in  particular  does  he  surrender  private  in- 
terests under  the  great  socializing  influence  of  Chris- 
tian charity,  the  flower  of  Christian  faith. 

1  The  Creator  and  the  Creature,  p.  38. 


CHAPTER   III. 


THE  PERSONALITY  OF  THE  TEACHER. 


Article  I. — What  is  Personality? 

The  thought  and  the  culture  of  the  modern  world 
are  deeply  indebted  to  the  Catholic  Church  for  pre- 
senting to  her  members  the  idea  of  personality  and  for 
demanding  of  them  conduct  befitting  their  dignity.  Of 
both  these  moral  elements — the  idea  and  its  expression 
in  behavior — had  the  pagan  world  lost  its  sense  long 
before  the  coming  of  Christianity.  The  result  was  in- 
evitably a  depolarization  of  man's  spiritual  life.1 

"And  so  the  ignorance  which  divested  God  of  His  creative 
power,  by  the  same  stroke  divested  man  of  his  personality.  In 
Greek  and  Roman  philosophy  man  had  not  only  ceased  to  be  a 
creature,  being  conceived  either  as  an  emanation  of  the  world-soul 
eternally  transfused  through  material  forms  from  generation  to 
generation,  or  as  a  product  of  the  earth's  slime  warmed  into  life 
by  the  sun's  heat;  but  likewise,  emanation  or  production  as  he 
was  accounted  like  all  other  living  things,  he  could  hardly  in  his 
short  transit  through  the  world  be  held  to  have  a  personal  sub- 
sistence: or  if  this  be  allowed  him,  it  must  be  allowed  to  all  other 
livings  things,  and  at  the  same  time  was  deprived  of  all  moral 
value,  being  utterly  extinguished  at  death  by  resumption  into  the 
world-soul. 

"It  is  but  a  part  of  the  same  error  as  to  the  divine  nature,  that 
the  notion  of  a  divine  providence  observing  and  directing  the 
course  of  the  world,  rewarding  or  punishing  the  actions  of  men, 


had  likewise  been  lost." 


1  See  also  above,  p.  42. 

>T.  W.  Allies,  op.  cit,  pp.  87,  88. 

74 


What  is  Personality?  75 

With  the  concept  of  God's  personality  perished  also 
the  consciousness  of  man  as  a  person ;  for  man  is  made 
in  the  image  and  likeness  of  God.1  When  paganism,  to 
use  the  words  of  Scripture,  "had  corrupted  its  way 
upon  the  earth,"  2  it  proceeded  to  conceive  its  gods  in 
the  image  and  likeness  of  man.  With  such  a  lowering 
of  ideals  and  perversion  of  fundamental  relationships, 
true  progress  became  impossible.  Whenever  and  wher- 
ever, in  the  last  twenty  centuries,  like  conditions  have 
been  reproduced,  like  results  have  followed.  When  the 
mental  vision  of  God's  unity  and  personality  becomes 
darkened,  then  man's  worth  depreciates  in  the  estimate 
of  the  community.  So  it  comes  to  pass  that  in  the 
world  of  labor  he  is  no  longer  a  moral  agent;  he  is 
merely  an  economic  factor.  Even  in  the  school  the 
child  ceases  to  be  a  concrete  intelligence  dowered  with 
the  promise  and  potency  of  undying  life;  he  is  rele- 
gated to  the  ranks  of  the  social  group  and,  in  so  far, 
is  only  one  of  many.  We  might  say,  then,  that  the 
history,  not  of  religion  only,  but  of  philosophy  also, 
has  "personality"  for  its  central  theme.  Consequently 
no  system  of  education  can  be  right  in  its  conception 
or  genuinely  beneficial  in  its  application  unless  it  in- 
cludes a  correct  interpretation  of  personality. 

As  is  suggested  by  its  derivation,  the  term  'person'  3 


1  Gen.  i,  26. 

8  Ibid,  vi,  12. 

8  From  the  Latin  per  and  sono,  sonare,  signifying  to  "sound"  or 
"utter  through,"  i.  e.,  through  the  opening  for  the  mouth.  It  was 
at  first  thought  that  these  masks  were  intended  simply  to  remind 
those  attending  the  play  that  the  actors  were  representing  other 


76  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

primarily  designated  the  mask  worn  by  the  actors  in 
the  old  Greek  and  Roman  plays.  Then  it  came  to  sig- 
nify the  player  who  wore  the  mask.  Finally,  since  "all 
the  world's  a  stage,"  it  attained  its  present  meaning. 
It  is  a  matter  of  some  cultural  interest  to  note  that  in 
Chaucer's  day  the  priest  was  the  most  important  per- 
son in  the  community,  whence  he  was  called  the  "par- 
son." x  From  the  Christian  viewpoint  it  is  still  true 
that  only  religion  as  the  guiding  principle  of  man's 
theory  and  practice,  can  develop  in  him  the  real  dig- 
nity of  personality.  The  nature  of  personality  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  has  attempted  to  explain,2  and  to  his 
definition  we  now  turn. 

Taking  Boethius'  description  of  person  as  "an  indi- 
vidual substance  of  a  rational,"  or  intelligent,  "na- 
ture," he  expands  it  into  this  form:  A  "person"  is  "a 
complete  substance  having  an  intellectual  nature,  sub- 
sisting by  itself  and  apart  from  other  substances."  He 
designates  person  as  "substance"  to  distinguish  it  from 
"real  accident";  that  is,  from  a  mere  quality,  modifi- 
cation, or  process.  It  is  "complete,"  and  is  therefore 
different  from  either  man's  body  or  his  soul,  since  it  is 
superior  to  both.  In  the  case  of  man  it  is  actually 
"constituted"  by  the  "union  of  body  and  soul."  Be- 
cause it  "subsists  by  itself,"  it  is  ultimate  master  of  its 


characters  than  their  own,  that  they  were  impersonating  the 
dramatis  persona.  Subsequently  it  was  found  that  the  funnel- 
shaped  opening  for  the  mouth  helped  the  actor's  voice  to  carry 
to  a  greater  distance. 

1  "Parson"  is  only  a  variant,  in  pronunciation  as  in  spelling,  of 
the  original  "person."  See  also  Canterbury  Tales. 

*  Swmma  Theologica,  III,  q.  16,  a.  2. 


What  Society  Expects.  7? 

acts,  and  therefore  cannot  become  a  mere  component 
of  something  else.  The  phrase  "apart  from  other 
things"  is  used  especially  to  distinguish  the  real  con- 
crete person  from  the  'idea  of  person,5  which  applies 
riot  to  a  determinant  individual,  but  to  each  and  every 
person  as  such. 

According  to  the  mind  of  St.  Thomas,  therefore, 
personality  includes  at  least  relative  completeness  of 
existence,  perfection  of  activity,  and  distinction  from 
others  even  of  the  same  kind.  It  is  a  significant  truth 
for  the  teacher  that  this  completeness  and  this  distinc- 
tion— this  development  and  this  individuality — can  be 
and  should  be,  to  a  great  extent,  the  work  of  education. 
Fortunately,  when  used  without  qualifying  epithets, 
the  term  still  possesses  an  honorable  connotation. 

Article  II. — What  Society  Expects. 

We  have  already  seen1  that  "an  ethical  aim,  spe- 
cialized knowledge,  and  technical  skill,"  together  with 
"culture,"  are  qualifications  which  every  teacher  should 
possess.  But  the  greatest  of  all  these  is  character.  It 
is  only  the  teacher  of  "character"  that  can  develop 
"character"  in  his  pupils.  Now,  genuine  social  service 
is  impossible  without  the  basic  equipment  of  good  char- 
acter. 

"To  live  according  to  nature,  to  follow  one's  own  inclinations 
and  interests,  ...  no  great  effort  is  needed.  ...  To  over- 
come nature  and  instead  to  prepare  for  a  life  of  ideals,  to  inhibit 
the  personal  desires  and  instead  to  learn  to  serve  the  higher  pur- 
poses, indeed  demands  most  serious  and  most  systematic  efforts. 


1  See  p.  7,  above. 


78  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

"It  is  the  teacher's  task  to  make  these  efforts  with  all  his  best 
knowledge  of  mind  and  body,  of  social  and  of  cultural  values. 
Psychology  and  physiology,  sociology  and  the  subjects  taught 
have  to  furnish  him  with  the  equipment  for  his  great  calling,  but 
they  all  represent  only  the  means,  which  are  of  no  use  until  ethics 
has  shown  us  the  aims.  Those  means  the  teacher  must  master  by 
study  and  knowledge,  but  those  aims  he  must  hold  in  his  heart."  * 

Hence  Prof.  H.  H.  Schroeder  says  bluntly : 

"What  education  must  aim  at,  therefore,  is  the  building  up  of 
moral  character;  for  it  is  only  when  those  with  whom  we  come  in 
contact  are  possessed  of  such  character  that  our  interests  are 
assured,  as  far  as  concerns  our  social  environment."* 

What  society  particularly  asks  of  both  teacher  and 
pupil,  what  it  demands  as  a  result  of  the  educative 
process,  is  social  efficiency.  This  has  been  defined  as 
"the  ability  to  enter  into  a  progressive  social  process 
and  do  one's  part  toward  advancing  the  interests  of 
the  whole,  while  at  the  same  time  attaining  the  highest 
degree  of  realization  of  the  self."  3 

"Efficient  participation  requires  knowledge  and  technique.  To 
be  a  good  citizen  of  the  state,  one  must  have  a  knowledge  of  the 
purpose  of  government,  of  the  machinery  of  his  own  government, 
and  the  nature  of  the  social  problems  confronting  the  state.  If  one 
is  to  stand  in  right  relations  to  the  school  and  do  his  part  as 
patron,  taxpayer,  or  official,  he  requires  a  comprehension  of  the 
nature  and  aim  of  education  and  a  knowledge  of  the  organization 


a  Muensterberg,  Psychology  and  the  Teacher,  pp.  76,  77.  Cf. 
Dr.  Adolf  Matthias,  Praktische  Pddagogik  fur  hohere  Lehran- 
stalten,  Bd.  II,  p.  11:  "Die  Personlichkeit  nur  gewinnen  kann, 
wenn  sie  tiichtig  in  der  Teknik  und  Methodik  des  Berufs  sich 
schult." 

a  The  Psychology  of  Conduct  Applied  to  the  Problem  of  Moral 
Education  in  the  Public  Schools,  p.  21. 
8  Betts,  op.  cit.,  p.  245. 


What  Society  Expects.  79 

and  functions  of  the  school  as  the  instrument  of  education.  To 
enter  successfully  into  a  vocation,  whether  industrial,  professional, 
or  any  other,  the  individual  must  have  a  concept  of  the  place  of 
work  in  human  progress,  and  a  particular  knowledge  of  and 
technique  in  the  vocation  selected.  Or,  if  one  is  to  make  fruitful 
use  of  the  avocations,  he  must  see  the  relation  of  avocations  to 
development  and  efficiency,  and  learn  the  technique  of  the  avoca- 
tions chosen."  * 

Yet  although  efficiency  demands  both  knowledge  and 
technical  skill,  what  it  really  accomplishes  will  depend 
chiefly  on  "character,"  for  character  shares  its  own 
force  with  the  other  factors.2 

"The  power  of  an  intense  purpose  to  heighten  the  intellectual 
insight  not  only  operates  on  the  teacher,  but  also  on  those  taught. 
.  .  .  The  first  requisite  is  a  supervisor  whose  soul  is  inspired 
with  the  sacredness  of  life.  ...  In  the  replies  of  fifty-five  col- 
lege presidents  and  representative  men  to  the  question:  'What  is 
the  Best  Thing  College  Does  for  a  Man?'  influence  of  personality 
everywhere  predominates."  * 

One  who  has  done  great  service  for  mankind,  Karl 
von  Baer,  can  therefore  say  with  authority: 

"What  a  man  accomplishes  in  the  course  of  his  life  depends 
mainly  upon  his  character — more  upon  what  he  is  than  what  he 
does."  * 

The  reason  is  given  by  Professor  Swift: 


1  Ibid.,  p.  246. 

•Cf.  the  Scholastic  axiom,  "Bonum  est  diifusivum  sui;"  also  the 
Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Art.  I,  of  the  Creed) :  "God 
was  impelled  to  create  from  no  other  motive  than  a  desire  to 
impart  to  creatures  the  riches  of  His  bounty." 

•  D.  E.  Phillips,  "The  Teaching  Interest,"  in  Pedagogical  Semi- 
nary, Vol.  VI,  p.  242. 

4  Quoted  in  Miall's  Thirty  Years  of  Teaching,  p.  182. 


80  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

"Character,  which  is  only  another  name  for  the  established  will, 
is  formed  through  ideals  which  have  been  consciously  or  uncon- 
sciously accepted  as  governing  principles  of  action.  And  these 
ideals  can  become  fixed  only  so  far  as  they  are  acted  upon."  x 

Since  society  expects  to  find  in  its  citizens  good 
moral  character,  it  therefore  asks  (1)  that  they  be 
equipped  with  true  and  noble  ideas;  (2)  that  they 
make  these  ideas  the  principles  of  their  conduct;  (3) 
that  they  cultivate  the  emotions  best  adapted  to  trans- 
form these  ideas  into  motives.  For: 

"Beyond  heredity,  and  beyond  environment,  are  those  factors 
that  determine  motives:  the  things  that  prod  us  to  capacity  effort, 
that  set  us  against  the  current  of  mere  circumstances.  These 
things  are  ideas,  the  stuff  and  substance  of  our  knowledge,  the 
results  of  our  educational  process.  To  realize  the  foolishness  of 
evil,  to  understand  the  method  of  its  avoidance,  to  know  how  to 
substitute  for  its  indulgence  a  vigorous  habit  of  healthful  activity 
is,  for  all  robust  natures,  already  to  will,  and  to  achieve,  good 
behavior." a 

Article  III. — What  the  Catholic  Church  Demands. 

The  connection  between  this  article  and  the  preceding 
one  is  clearly  pointed  out  by  Mgr.  J.  Guibert  when  he 
compares  the  demands  made  upon  the  teacher  by  God 
and  by  the  State:3 


1  Youth  and  the  Race,  p.  126. 

2  Eliott  Park  Frost,  "Habit  Formation  and  Reformation,"  Yale 
Review,  Oct.,  1914,  p.   147. 

8  "La  Societe  lui  demande  des  hommes  sains  de  corps  et  d'ame, 
des  citoyens  honnetes  et  devoues  a  la  patrie:  Dieu  lui  demande, 
en  plus,  des  Chretiens  fideles  a  leur  foi  et  des  apotres  zeles  pour 
la  defense  et  Pextension  de  1'Eglise." — Les  Qualites  de  I'Educa- 
teur,  p.  5.  The  author  is  Superior  of  the  Seminary  of  the 
Catholic  Institute  (i.  e.,  the  Catholic  University)  of  Paris. 


What  the  Catholic  Church  Demands.  81 

"Society  asks  of  him  men  sound  of  body  and  soul,  citizens  that 
are  honest  and  patriotic.  God  asks,  beside  this,  Christians  that 
are  true  to  their  faith  and  apostles  that  are  zealous  for  the  de- 
fense and  the  expansion  of  the  Church." 

From  this  statement  it  would  appear  that  the  requi- 
sites sought  by  the  Catholic  Church,  far  from  destroy- 
ing or  supplanting  those  insisted  upon  by  the  State, 
rather  (1)  complete  them  by  adding  other  qualifica- 
tions, and  (£)  transform  them  by  animating  them  with 
a  new  spirit.  We  may  therefore  consider  briefly  the 
requirements  that  are  special  to  the  Catholic  teacher. 
According  to  the  authority  just  cited,  they  are  two  in 
number;  for  the  teacher  must  "nourish  his  soul,  and 
give  his  soul";  because,  "in  the  measure  in  which  he 
gives  out  his  life,  must  he  renew  its  vigor." 

All  teachers  should  be  firmly  convinced  of  three 
things  : 

(1)  *The  scope  of  their  apostolate  will  be  determined  by  their 
own  personal  worth;  (2)  their  personal  worth  will  be  quickly 
drained  unless  it  is  fed  and  strengthened  by  personal  culture;  (3) 
personal  culture  is  of  obligation  for  all,  and  it  is  possible  for  all 
who  have  sufficient  good  will  to  economize  their  time  and  possess 
their  souls  in  peace/ 

"What  culture  should  the  teachef  acquire?  All  that  may  be  for 
him  a  principle  of  life  and  a  principle  of  action:  his  faith,  his 
virtue,  his  knowledge."2 

'"Tous  ses  devoirs  se  ram^nent  &  deux:  nourrir  son  &me, 
donner  son  ame,  car,  a  mesure  qu'il  donne  sa  vie,  il  doit  en 
renouveler  la  vigeur." — Id.,  p.  8. 

a  "Je  voudrais  que  tous  les  maitres  fussent  persuades  de  trois 
choses:  que  la  portee  de  leur  apostolat  sera  en  proportion  de  leur 
valeur;  que  cette  valeur,  fiit-elle  tres  grande  aux  dlbuts,  sera  vite 
£puis£e  si  elle  n'est  entretenue  et  d£velopp£e  par  la  culture  per- 
sonnelle;  que  cette  culture,  obligatoire  pour  tous,  est  possible  & 


82  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

Faith  is  placed  first.  It  directs  the  teacher  in  the 
choice  of  virtues  to  be  cultivated ;  it  determines  his  aim 
both  in  acquiring  and  in  imparting  knowledge,  it  vital- 
izes his  method.  It  gives  a  broader  outlook  and  a  deeper 
inspiration. 

"The  Gospel  did  not  create  a  new  system  of  culture  in  opposi- 
tion to  that  which  it  found  in  possession,  but  it  introduced  into 
the  latter  an  essentially  new  circle  of  ideas,  equally  foreign  to 
abstract  indefiniteness  and  poetic  exaggeration  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  mere  empty  knowledge  of  the  letter  on  the  other.  The 
former  bore  the  baleful  mark  of  antiquity;  the  latter,  that  of 
Jewish  devotion  to  the  letter  of  the  law:  while  Christianity  pos- 
sesses a  definite  personal  unity  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  Alpha  and 
Omega  of  the  Gospel.  Hence  it  is  that  Christianity  exercised  not 
a  destructive  but  a  constructive,  influence  on  the  culture  with 
which,  at  its  birth,  it  was  brought  face  to  face.  By  it  the  content 
of  man's  religious  and  moral  conscience  was  corrected,  broadened, 
completed,  and  elevated."1 

This  estimate  is  confirmed  by  Dr.  Pace,  who  inter- 


tous  pourvu  qu'on  ait  assez  de  volonte"  pour  e"conomiser  du  temps 
et  pour  possecler  son  ame.  Mais  que  devra  cultiver  le  maitre? 
Tout  ce  qui  est  en  lui  principe  de  vie  et  principe  d'action:  sa  foi, 
sa  vertu,  son  savoir." — Id.,  pp.  13,  14. 

1  Das  Evangelium  schuf  nicht  ein  neues  Bildungssystem  in 
Opposition  zu  dem  welches  es  als  ein  historisch  gegebenes  antraf, 
sender n  es  trat  an  dasselbe  mit  einem  wesentlich  neuen  Ideen- 
kreise  heran,  der  ebenso  fern  war  vom  abstrakter  Unbestimmt- 
heit  and  poetischer  Gestaltenuberfiille  wie  leerer  Buchstaben- 
kramerei;  das  eine  die  unheilvolle  Signatur  der  Antike,  das 
andere  die  der  judischen  Schriftgelehrsamkeit,  vielmehr  eine  ganz 
bestimmt  personliche  Einheit  besass,  die  das  Alpha  und  Omega 
seines  Evangeliums  ist,  Jesus  Christus.  Damit  hat  das  Chris- 
tentum  eine  nicht  umsturzende,  sondern  eine  gestaltende  Macht 
auf  die  Bildung,  welche  es  bei  seinem  Eintritt  in  die  Welt  antraf, 
geubt,  dass  es  den  Inhalt  des  religios-sittlichen  Bewusstseins 
berichtigte,  erweiterte,  erganzte  und  erhohte." — J.  N.  B runner, 
Katholische  Religionslehre,  II,  pp.  5,  6. 


What  the  Catholic  Church  Demands.  83 

prets  in  a  Christian  sense  Spencer's  definition  of  edu- 
cation as  "preparation  for  complete  living:"1 

"It  is  just  this  completeness — in  teaching  all  men,  in  harmonizing 
all  truth,  in  elevating  all  relationships,  and  in  leading  the  indi- 
vidual soul  back  to  the  Creator — that  forms  the  essential  charac- 
teristic of  Christianity  as  an  educational  influence."1 

Just  as  the  exercise  of  faith  presupposes  reason, 
which  examines  and  approves  the  grounds  of  faith,  so 
the  development  of  virtue  implies  a  co-operation  be- 
tween grace  and  nature.  As  the  teacher  must  have 
human  faith,3  so  must  he  cultivate  human,  or  natural, 
virtues.  Of  these,  besides  the  four  cardinal  virtues, 
which  every  man  should  possess,  Mgr.  Guibert  would 
have  the  teacher  excel  in  four:4  (1)  sincerity,  winning 
the  confidence  of  others;  (£)  probity,  respecting  their 
rights;  (3)  delicacy,  displaying  the  courtesy  of  the 
true  gentleman;5  (4)  strength  of  character,  for  the 
teacher  must  "be  a  man." 

Now,  the  Catholic  Church  teaches  that  our  existence 
does  not  terminate  with  death,  but  that  this  earthly 
life  is  only  a  period  of  probation  and  training  for  life 
everlasting,  just  as  the  school  prepares  for  social 
service  here  on  earth.  Consequently  the  Catholic 

1  See  p.  58,  above. 

2  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  "Education." 
8  See  above,  pp.  26,  27. 

4  Op.  cit.,  pp.  31-34. 

5Cf.  Cardinal  Newman's  "Idea  of  a  Gentleman"  in  Idea  of  a 
University,  p.  208,  together  with  Rev.  Charles  L.  O'Donnell's  ex- 
planation in  the  Ave  Maria,  Jan.  16,  1915,  p.  73  f. 

•This  list  is  in  great  accord  with  the  "characteristics  of  the 
best  teachers,"  Pedagogical  Seminary,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  413, 


84  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

teacher  must  supplement  his  natural  virtues  with  vir- 
tues that  are  supernatural.  He  must  even  develop  his 
natural  virtues  from  supernatural  motives;  in  other 
words,  he  is  to  raise  them  to  the  plane  of  the  super- 
natural. This  gives  a  deeper  significance  to  the  words 
of  Professor  Miall:1 

"Everything  falls  into  its  right  place  as  soon  as  we  focus  our 
minds  upon  the  thing  which  really  signifies — that  is,  upon  life." 

It  also  guards  against  the  attitude  which  Professor 
McKenny  deprecates:2 

"Nine-tenths  of  the  failures  of  life  are  due  to  a  lack  of  devotion 
to  the  work  in  hand,  to  a  vacillating,  indifferent,  flippant  attitude, 
toward  life.  Such  an  attitude  saps  manhood." 

The  three  theological  virtues  raise  the  Christian  into 
intimate  relationship  with  God:  (1)  faith  does  homage 
to  His  intelligence  by  accepting  the  revelations  made 
by  infinite  Truth;  (2)  hope  honors  the  divine  good- 
ness by  trusting  to  secure  the  personal  everlasting  pos- 
session of  the  reward  promised  to  man;  (3)  charity 
seeks  intimate  union  with  Him  who  has  given  us  the 
law  of  love.  But  in  addition  to  these  spiritual  habits, 
the  Christian  teacher  must  possess  the  supernatural 
virtues  of  humility,  self-denial,  and  detachment;3  for 
these  inhibit  the  three  great  obstacles  to  his  complete 
success,  viz.,  pride,  self-gratification,  and  the  craving 
for  wealth.  These  virtues  bring  us  to  the  very  door  of 


1  Op.  cit,  p.  217. 

3  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher,  p.  74. 

*  Guibert,  op.  cit.,  pp.  35-41. 


What  the  Novitiate  Offers.  85 

the    novitiate.      The   spirit    of    the    typical    Christian 
teacher  is  at  one  with  the  spirit  of  the  typical  novice. 

Article  IV. — What  the  Novitiate  Offers. 

1.  The   novitiate   offers    its    members    a   practical 
course  in   the  philosophy   of  life.      It  unfolds   to   the 
novice  the  significance  of  his  existence  and  action  (a) 
as  creature,  (b)  as  human  being,  (c)  as  Christian,  (d) 
as  religious.     Each  of  these  planes  represents  a  stage 
of  ascent;  whence  we  may  argue  a  certain  measure  of 
propriety  in  St.  Thomas'  designation  of  the  religious 
life  as  a  "state  of  perfection." 

2.  The  novitiate  gives  training  in   (a)    self-exam- 
ination,  (b)    self-mastery    (self-denial),  and    (c)    self- 
realization.     The  first  is  a  condition  of  understanding 
other  minds.     How  wide  may  be  its  scope  and  how  far- 
reaching  its  influence,  is  to  be  inferred  from  its  splendid 
expression    in    Cardinal   Newman's    "Grammar   of   As- 
sent."       The   second   qualification   is    a    condition    of 
directing  and  controlling  others.     The  third  is  a  con- 
dition of  developing  an  effective  personality. 

3.  The  novitiate  socializes  its  members.     Together 
the  novices  partake  of  bodily  food ;  together  do  they 
feast  on  the  Bread  from  heaven  that  daily  awaits  them 


1  See  above,  pp.  30,  58. 

aThe  student  will  find  the  Indexed  Synopsis  of  the  Grammar 
of  Assent,  by  J.  Toohey,  S.  J.,  a  great  help.  Rev.  Joseph 
Rickaby's  Index  to  the  Works  of  Cardinal  Newman  (Longmans, 
1914)  is  even  more  valuable,  since  it  extends  to  all  the  Cardinal's 
writings. 


86  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

in  the  tabernacle.  Together  they  share  their  joys  and 
their  labors.  Together  they  recite  the  office  in  the 
name  of  fne  Church.  Together  do  they  day  by  day 
seek  by  meditation  to  assimilate  the  great  truths  of 
that  faith  whose  tenets  they  may  later  strive  to  trans- 
late into  the  living  deeds  of  their  pupils. 

4.  The  novitiate  opens  an  excellent  laboratory  for 
experiments   in   habit-formation.      The   silence   of   the 
house,  its  seclusion  from  worldly  concerns,  but  most  of 
all,  the  retreat  and  general  confession  prescribed  for 
the  novice  or  recommended  to  him  at  the  beginning  of 
his  career,  break  or  weaken  the  chains  of  the  past.    His 
soul  is  borne  onward  by  the  tide  of  noble  but  controlled 
emotions.    Regular  observance  brings  with  it  endless  op- 
portunity of  practising  the  acts  whose  repetition  helps 
to  build  habit.     The  spirit  of  faith  guards  the  novice's 
fervor  against  that  routine  which  would  either  render 
the  formation  of  habit  impossible  or  weaken  its  efficacy 
or  mar  its  purpose. 

5.  Since,    according    to    the    principles    of    sound 
method,    the    study    of    the    philosophy    of    education 
should  precede  that  of  the  psychology  of  education,1 
the  novitiate  is  justified  in  making  its  curriculum  con- 
sist chiefly  of  the  meaning  and  value  of  life.     It  thus 
sets  a  standard  of  values.     That  standard  places  re- 
ligious and  ethical  aims  above  the  theories  and  esti- 
mates offered  by  physiology,  psychology,  and  sociol- 
ogy.2    Does  the  history  of  religious  orders  ratify  the 

>Cf.  Ruediger,  op.  cit.,  p.  11. 
2Cf.  Muensterberg,  ibid, 


What  the  Novitiate  Offers.  87 

appraisal  made  by  the  novitiate?     Let  us  ponder  the 
words  of  Dr.  Heimbucher: 

"The  monks  carried  the  banner  of  culture  and  civilization  to  the 
distant  regions  of  the  earth.  They  were  the  apostles  of  Christian- 
ity,  not  only  in  the  West,  but  also  in  Asia  and  in  the  newly  dis- 
covered regions  of  the  globe.  Their  foundations  opened  the  way 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  for  the  laying  out  of  colonies,  vil- 
lages, and  towns.  The  monks  cleared  forests,  drained  swamps  and 
planted  them,  controlled  rivers,  recovered  fruitful  land  by  the 
building  of  dams,  gave  an  impetus  to  cattle-raising,  to  agriculture 
and  industry,  and  trained  in  these  pursuits  the  colonists  whom  they 
habituated  to  a  fixed  dwelling-place  and  to  regulated  labor.  They 
introduced  the  cultivation  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  they  built  mills 
and  forges,  made  streets  and  bridges,  promoted  trade  and  com- 
merce. They  prepared  the  way  for  the  class  of  free  handworkers, 
and  in  so  doing  favored  the  development  of  city  government. 
They  united  the  handworkers  [craftsmen]  in  fraternal  societies 
and  guilds  and  made  a  point  of  favoring  their  material  advance 
through  appropriate  means.  The  cloisters  practised  hospitality, 
care  of  the  sick,  and  works  of  charity,  wherever  the  opportunity 
was  oifered,  erected  schools  and  colleges  [Erziehungsanstalten], 
hospitals  and  inns,  and  took  in  travelers  who  had  lost  their  way. 
Great  have  been  their  services  to  the  arts  and  sciences.  Without 
the  cloisters  many  cities  and  countries  would  be  without  those 
buildings  and  art  treasures  which  to-day  call  forth  the  admiration 
of  all  the  cultured.  The  monks  formed  valuable  libraries,  and 
through  their  unceasing  industry  in  the  scriptoria  (writing-rooms) 
in  making  copies,  which  they  often  illuminated  with  beautiful 
miniatures,  they  preserved  the  priceless  literary  monuments  which 
to-day  link  us  with  the  culture  of  the  distant  past.  They  were 
the  historians  of  their  time.  They  left  many  valuable  sources  of 
the  Old  High  German  tongue;  they  cultivated  poetry  and  song, 
won  for  themselves  a  good  name  by  their  knowledge  of  lands, 
peoples,  and  languages,  mathematics  and  astronomy,  and  the 
science  of  diplomacy  (study  of  records,  titles,  etc.).  They  even 
attempted  natural  philosophy  and  medicine.  But  it  was  espe- 
cially theology  that,  through  the  orders,  experienced  beneficial 
attention  and  progress.  Brotherhoods  copied  and  distributed  a 
superior  kind  of  popular  literature,  and,  after  the  invention  of 


88  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

printing,  applied  themselves  to  the  printing  of  books.  The  care 
of  souls  formed  another  branch  of  the  comprehensive  activity  of 
the  orders.  Attention  was  also  given  to  prisoners,  and  especially 
to  slaves,  for  whose  redemption  from  captivity  special  orders 
arose.  From  the  orders  also  came  many  martyrs,  and  many  of 
the  members  have  been  beatified  or  canonized."  * 

Let  us  not  forget  (1)  that  the  one  common,  indis- 
pensable, fundamental  preparation  for  all  these  varied 
forms  of  service  was  the  novitiate;  (&)  that  the  motives 
which  brought  so  many  noble  ideas  and  ideals  into  re- 
ality sprang  from  Christian  faith;  (3)  that  the  works 
which  would  have  been  impossible  for  isolated  individ- 
uals became  facts  through  individuals  who  had  learned 
in  the  novitiate  to  lead  a  "community  life"  and  to  ani- 
mate it  with  the  spirit  of  faith.  And  these  remarks  hold 
true  even  in  the  case  of  orders  that  do  not  specially 
devote  themselves  to  formal  education.  "By  their 
fruits  ye  shall  know  them"  is  a  test  that  is  accepted  by 
both  God  and  man.2 

We  may  now  better  appreciate  the  worth  of  the  tes- 
timony given  by  an  historian  whom  no  one  will  accuse 
of  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  Catholic  Church: 

"Its  [Latin  Christianity's]  most  important  peculiarity  lay  in 
this — that  a  slow  but  sure  and  unbroken  progress  of  intellectual 
culture  had  been  going  on  within  its  bosom  for  a  series  of  ages. 
.  .  .  Hence  all  the  vital  and  productive  elements  of  human 
culture  were  here  united  and  mingled:  the  development  of  society 
had  gone  on  naturally  and  gradually;  the  innate  passion  and 
genius  for  science  and  for  art  constantly  received  fresh  food 

"Op.  cit.,  pp.  60,  61.  On  pp.  65,  66,  the  author  cites  non- 
Catholic  testimony  to  the  benefits  accruing  to  the  world  from 
religious  orders. 

aMatt.  vii,  16, 


What  the  Novitiate  Offers.  89 

and  fresh  inspiration,  and  were  in  their  fullest  blpom  and  vigor; 

.     .     .     in    Europe   were   found  united   the   most   intelligent,   the 

bravest,  and  the  most  civilized  nations  still  in   the  freshness  of 
youth."  1 

There  is  also  the  prestige  of  example: 

"The  greatest  teachers  and  bishops  of  the  fourth  century,  St. 
Athanasius,  St.  Basil,  his  friend  St  Gregory,  in  the  East;  St. 
Ambrose,  St.  Martin,  and  St.  Augustine,  in  the  West,  themselves 
introduced  this  life  by  their  example  as  well  as  by  their  precepts. 
No  sooner  had  St.  Augustine,  upon  his  conversion,  renounced  the 
intention  of  marriage,  than  he  drew  together  a  number  of  like- 
minded  friends,  who  with  him  also  gave  up  the  possession  of 
private  goods,  and  the  pursuit  of  every  object  of  temporal 
ambition.  St.  Basil  and  his  friend  St.  Gregory  had  a  generation 
before  done  this,  with  an  earlier  and  more  perfect  choice,  inas- 
much as  they  had  not  first  tasted  the  pleasures  of  the  world. 
St.  Athanasius,  driven  by  persecution  to  Treves  and  to  Rome, 
publishes  a  life  of  St.  Anthony,  and  spreads  throughout  the  West 
an  admiration  of  the  marvelous  virtues  which  he  had  witnessed 
in  the  Fathers  of  the  desert.  By  and  by  the  great  legislator  of 
the  monastic  life  in  the  West,  St.  Benedict,  arises,  who  system- 
atizes for  all  succeeding  ages  the  religious  institute,  as  based 
upon  the  three  vows  of  continence,  poverty,  and  obedience."2 

Would  it  not  then  be  passing  strange,  if,  since  "with 

1  "Die  wichtigste  Eigenthiimlichkeit  derselben  lag  darin,  dass 
hier  eine  Reihe  von  Jahrhunderten  hindurch  ein  nicht  unter- 
brochener,  langsamer,  aber  sicherer  Fortschritt  der  Cultur  statt 
prefunden  hatte.  .  .  .  Daher  hatten  sich  hier  alle  lebens- 
fahigen  Elemente  der  menschlichen  Cultur  vereinigt,  durch- 
drungen;  die  Dinge  hatten  sich  naturgemass  Schritt  fur  Schritt, 
entwickeln  konnen;  .  .  .  das  Vorkommene  verfiel,  die  Keime 
des  frischen  Lebens  wuchsen  in  jedem  Moment  empor;  hier  waren 
die  geistreichsten,  tapfersten,  gebildetsten  Volker,  noch  immer 
jugendlich,  mit  einander  vereinigt." — Von  Ranke,  Deutsche 
Geschichte  im  Zeitalter  der  Reformation,  Band  I,  Buch  I,  cap. 
i,  p.  155. — English  tr.  by  Sarah  Austin,  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  Germany,  Vol.  I,  Bk.  I,  Chap.  I,  pp.  251,  252. 

9  Allies,  op.  cit,  pp.  359,  360. 


90  The  Personality  of  the  Teachvr. 

one  mouth  all  the  ancient  Christian  writers  proclaim 
the  Virginal  Life  to  be  the  condition  of  all  perfect  fol- 
lowing of  our  Lord," 1  and  our  Lord  is  the  great 
Teacher  of  mankind,  the  religious  novitiate  should  be 
lacking  in  fundamental  pedagogical  value? 

Article  V. — The  Teacher's  Ideals  of  Personality. 

The  teacher's  personality  is  said  to  constitute  nine- 
tenths  of  the  capital  that  he  needs  to  fulfill  his  mission 
worthily  and  successfully.  Is  personality  a  gift  be- 
stowed from  on  high,  implying  no  preparatory  dis- 
positions or  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  recipient?  Or 
may  one  develop  a  personality  and  in  so  doing  produce 
the  finest  of  masterpieces — a  model  man  ?  Among  those 
who  take  the  latter  view  is  William  De  Witt  Hyde, 
President  of  Bowdoin  College. 

From  the  history  of  philosophy  Dr.  Hyde  selects 
five  great  ideals  of  education,  and  presents  them  to  the 
teacher.2  The  first  is  the  Epicurean  ideal,  viz.,  that 
pleasure  is  the  great  aim  of  life,  and  therefore  that  pain 
is  the  great  bane  of  existence,  to  be  avoided  at  any 
cost.  Epicurus  himself  3  did  not  go  the  length  of  some 


1  Id.,  p.  345. 

3  The  complete  title  of  this  book  is  The  Teacher's  Philosophy 
in  and  out  of  School.  The  same  principles  will  be  found  also  in 
his  From  Epictetus  to  Christ,  his  Five  Or  eat  Philosophies  of  Life, 
and  in  Section  XIII  of  his  The  College  Man  and  the  College 
Woman. 

8Cf.  Alfred  W.  Benn,  The  Greek  Philosophers,  for  these  four 
Greek  ideals  j  also  Eev,  W.  Turner,  History  of  Philosophy. 


The  Teacher's  Ideals  of  Personality.  91 

of  his  disciples  in  adopting  the  maxim:  "Eat,  drink, 
and  be  merry ;  for  to-morrow  we  shall  die."  But  such 
a  principle  is  valuable  as  illustrating  the  inherent  weak- 
ness of  his  system  and  its  narrowing  and  debasing  tend- 
ency. What,  then,  is  the  teacher  to  do  with  this  ideal 
of  pleasure  if  not  reject  it  entirely?  He  should  make 
rational  use  of  it,  says  Dr.  Hyde.  Just  as  man  con- 
tains in  himself  not  only  reason,  but  the  qualities  of  the 
lower  orders  of  creation,  so  in  virtue  of  these  humbler 
elements  of  his  nature  must  he  satisfy  their  tendencies 
and  demands — all  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  mo- 
rality. Now,  there  are  times  when  recreation  and  re- 
laxation become  imperative.  Ordinarily  one's  fidelity 
to  duty  and  one's  degree  of  efficiency  will  be  conditioned 
on  the  possession  of  health  and  vigor.  Although  these 
are  not  the  highest  of  perfections,  since  they  belong 
to  man  merely  because  he  is  an  organism,  they  are  yet 
gifts  of  God,  and  as  such  should  be  treasured.  More- 
over, Scripture  nowhere  records  that  the  Saviour  en- 
dured sickness.  Hunger,  thirst,  fatigue,  lassitude  even 
—all  these  indeed  He  suffered — but  of  illness  there  is 
no  mention  except  when  He  is  pictured  as  miraculously 
banishing  it  from  the  bodies  of  those  so  afflicted.  The 
lesson  to  be  drawn  from  this  ideal  is  therefore  one  of 
reasonable  care  for  one's  health  and  strength.  It  in- 
cludes provision  for  sufficient  rest  and  recreation  to  be 
taken  preferably  in  "God's  own  out-of-doors,"  in  the 
society  of  congenial  friends. 

The  second  great  ideal  comes  from  the  Stoics,  and 
stands  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  Epicurean.     According 


98  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

to  this  school  of  philosophy,  the  great  goal  of  hu- 
man endeavor  is  apathy,  a  state  of  indifference  to  pleas- 
ure and  pain,  and  indeed  to  feeling  in  general.  It  vir- 
tually asserts  that  man  is  not  an  animal,  but  a  think- 
ing machine.  Its  practice  is  therefore  to  ignore  the 
joys  and  sorrows  of  life.  The  Stoic  even  tries  to  per- 
suade himself  that  they  do  not  exist.  If  it  be  true  that 
most  of  the  worries  of  life  concern  things  that  never 
happen  at  all,  the  Stoic's  attitude  may  not  be  utterly 
unwise.  The  lesson  for  the  teacher  is  obvious.  His 
calling  bristles  with  trials  and  disappointments,  and  the 
success  of  his  mission  depends  on  his  ability  to  rise 
above  these  annoyances  and,  by  his  dignified  conduct, 
justify  the  confidence  which  his  pupils  place  in  him. 
This  disposition  Dr.  Hyde  names  "Stoic  self-control 
by  law." 

The  third  great  ideal  is  Plato's.  For  him,  man's 
body  and  the  material  universe  were  but  accidents,  or 
at  most  incidents.  Both  his  Republic  and  his  Laws 
were  consistent,  though  not  successful,  plans  for  the 
establishment  of  an  ideal — or  Utopian — State.  Yet  if 
one  is  to  live  his  own  life,  to  see  above  and  beyond  the 
petty  details  of  his  trade  or  profession,  he  must  be  ideal- 
istic in  the  sense  of  having  true  ideas  of  the  value  and 
the  purpose  of  life;  and  from  time  to  time  he  must 
climb  the  mountain  of  idealism  to  breathe  a  purer  at- 
mosphere and  to  draw  new  courage  for  the  battle  in 
and  with  the  world.  But  if  they  are  to  be  of  real 
service,  these  short  periods  of  withdrawal  from  his  daily 
occupations  should  but  fit  him  the  better  for  the  daily 


The  Teacher's  Ideals  of  Personality.  93 

demands  made  upon  him.  It  is  in  this  spirit  that  "hob- 
bies" and  avocations  may  have  a  genuine  uplifting  in- 
fluence on  character.  The  lesson  is  therefore  that  of 
being  larger  than  one's  calling,  of  refusing  to  be  ab- 
sorbed by  it,  since  it  is  a  means,  not  an  end.  In  other 
words,  the  teacher  must  cultivate  a  "Platonic  subor- 
dination of  lower  to  higher." 

The  fourth  great  ideal  is  that  of  Aristotle.  Unlike 
Plato,  Aristotle  lays  a  secure  foundation  on  facts  per- 
ceived by  sense  and  examined  by  intellect.  His  attitude 
is  not  poetic,  like  that  of  his  great  teacher,  but  scien- 
tific. He  seeks  to  ascertain  the  true  relations  of  things 
and  thereby  to  develop  a  sense  of  proportion.  In  this 
respect  he  has  been  a  safe  guide  for  subsequent  ages. 
Every  real  educator,  says  Dr.  Hyde,  is  called  upon  to 
do  twenty  times  as  much  as  he  can  do  with  any  justice 
to  himself  and  to  the  work  in  question.  He  must  there- 
fore cultivate  a  sense  of  proportion  and  discriminate 
between  the  things  that  are  important  and  those  that 
only  seem  so.  In  order  to  do  well  the  one-twentieth 
that  is  possible,  he  must  learn  to  say  "No !"  kindly  yet 
firmly  when  occasion  calls  for  refusal.  Only  in  this 
way  will  he  keep  that  peace  of  mind  which  is  essential 
to  him  as  man  and  as  teacher.  Only  in  this  way  will  he 
practise  the  "Aristotelian  sense  of  proportion." 

Lastly,  there  is  the  ideal  set  before  man  by  the  In- 
carnate Wisdom  of  God  when  He  came  down  upon 
earth  to  teach  by  word  and  example.  Its  character- 
istic is  a  spirit  of  love,  proclaimed,  like  a  clarion  call, 
from  the  great  pulpit  of  the  cross.  The  teacher  who 


94  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

would  walk  in  the  footsteps  of  the  Greatest  of  all 
Teachers  must  early  learn  the  lesson  of  sacrifice.  It  is 
the  means  of  redemption  for  himself  and  his  pupils. 
The  Christian  ideal  includes  and  exalts  all  that  is  good 
in  the  other  four.1 

These  ideals  of  personality,  based  as  they  are  on 
fundamental  views  of  life,  deserve  a  prominent  place  in 
the  philosophy  of  education.  Of  the  benefit  which  the 
teacher  may  derive  from  their  careful  study,  let  Dr. 
Hyde  himself  speak : 

"Show  me  any  teacher  of  sufficient  mental  training  and  quali- 
fications who  is  unpopular,  ineffective,  unhappy,  and  I  will  guar- 
antee that  this  teacher  has  violated  one  or  more  of  these  prin- 
ciples of  personality.  .  .  .  On  the  other  hand,  I  will  guarantee 
perfect  personal  success  to  any  well-trained  teacher  who  will 
faithfully  incorporate  these  principles  into  his  personal  life. 
.  .  .  This  teacher  can  no  more  help  being  a  personal  success 
as  a  teacher  than  the  sunlight  and  rain  can  help  making  the 
earth  the  fruitful  and  beautiful  place  that  it  is."2 

The  first  four  of  these  ideals  have  long  been  held  in 
honor  in  the  normal  school.  The  difficulty  arises  in 
recognizing  and  following  the  fifth,  which  is  the  great- 
est of  all.  How  serious  may  be  the  consequences  of 
ignoring  it,  we  have  noted  in  Chapter  I.3  After  years 
of  careful  study  given  to  the  question,  Dr.  F.  W. 
Foerster  has  arrived  at  this  conclusion:4 


*Dr.  Hyde  calls  attention  to  this  fact,  pp.  78-81. 

2  Op.  cit,  pp.  81,  82,  83. 

8  See  Chap.  I,  Arts.  VI,  VII. 

4Gegenuber  der  religiosen  Ethik  ist  die  blosse  Moral  immer 
nur  ein  Kreuz  ohne  Auferstehung — die  Religion  erst  bezieht  alle 
Ueberwindung  auf  ein  hochstes  Gut  des  personlichen  Lebens. 
Die  Moral  religios  begriinden,  das  heisst  eben  diese  ganz  person- 


The  Teacher's  Ideals  of  Personality.  95 

"In  contrast  with  religious  ethics,  mere  morality  is  at  best 
only  a  cross  without  a  resurrection — for  it  is  religion  that  turns 
every  conquest  to  the  highest  good  of  our  personal  life.  To 
give  morality  a  religious  foundation  is  to  perceive  this  personal 
significance  of  the  moral,  to  concentrate  our  attention  upon  it,  to 
draw  inspiration  from  it.  To-day  it  is  regarded  as  a  mark  of 
developed  personality  to  strip  the  moral  of  its  religious  basis; 
whereas  in  reality  this  religious  basis  is  the  true  foundation  of 
personality,  since  this  alone  can  represent  the  sacrificing  of  life  as 


liche  Bedeutung  des  Sittlichen  herausempfinden,  sich  darauf  kon- 
centrieren,  daraus  die  Inspiration  entnehmen.  Es  gilt  ja  heute 
als  Zeichen  der  entwickelten  Personlichkeit,  dass  man  die 
religiose  Begrtindung  des  Sittlichen  abstreift — in  Wirklichkeit 
aber  ist  die  religiose  Begriindung  die  wahrhaft  personliche 
Begrtindung,  weil  sie  allein  die  Hingebwng  des  Lebens  als  den 
Oewinn  des  wahren  Lebens  darzustellen — und  nicht  bloss  darzu- 
stellen,  sondern  in  einem  ergreifenden  Leben  und  Sterben  zu 
verkorpern  vermag.  Der  blosse  dumpfe  Lebenstrieb  rebelliert 
seinem  Wesen  nach  gegen  das  Sittengesetz — die  christliche  Re- 
ligion klart  den  Menschen  am  tiefsten  und  iiberzeugendsten  iiber 
das  Wesen  des  wahren  Lebens  und  der  wahren  Freiheit  auf — in 
diesem  aufgeklarten  Zustande  erfasst  der  Mensch  dann  aile 
Ueberwindung  als  hochste  personliche  Lebenserfiillung.  So 
versteht  allein  die  christliche  Religion  die  dussere  geselhchaft- 
liche  Forderung  mit  dem  tiefsten  personliche  Freiheit sdrange,  die 
Beschriinkung  des  Lebens  mit  dem  Lebensdurste  zu  versohnen; 
sie  allein  iibersetzt  wirklich  und  lebendig  den  Gehorsam  in  die 
Sprache  der  Freiheit,  sie  ist  der  Ort,  in  dem  Individuum  und 
Gesellschaft  sich  innerlich  vermahlen.  Und  eben  diese  Leistung 
des  Christentums  hat  Paulus  in  Auge,  wenn  er  sagt,  das  Chris- 
tentum  beendige  die  Knechtschaft  des  Gesetzes.  Alle  blosse 
Ethik  bleibt  in  der  Knechtschaft  des  Gesetzes;  auch  die  wissen- 
schaftliche  Ethik  ist  ja  nur  eine  wissenschaftliche  Darstellung 
dieser  Knechtschaft.  Die  Ethik  erzahlt  dem  Menschen  von 
gesellschaftlichen  Notwendigkeiten — die  Religion  erzahlt  ihm  von 
sich  selbst,  seiner  hoheren  Herkunft,  von  der  tiefverborgenen 
Kraften  seiner  geistigen  Natur,  weckt  seine  Sehnsucht  nacfi 
vollkommener  Freiheit,  stellt  diese  Freiheit  in  strahlender  Voll- 
endung:  das  ist  religiose  Begrtindung  der  Moral. — "Religion  und 
Charakterbindung,"  Memoires  sur  I'Education  Morale  presentes  au 
deuzieme  Congres  international  d'Education  Morale  a  la  Hnye, 
1912,  p.  7. 


96  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

the  gaining  of  true  life.  And  not  only  this,  it  may  even  incor- 
porate it  so  thoroughly  as  to  embrace  both  life  and  death.  The 
mere  animal  impulse  of  self-preservation,  by  its  very  nature, 
rebels  against  the  moral  law.  The  Christian  religion  enlightens 
man  in  the  most  thorough  and  convincing  way  as  to  the  nature  of 
genuine  life  and  real  freedom;  and  so  enlightened,  man  perceives 
that  self-mastery  is  the  realization  of  the  highest  personal  life. 
Thus  it  comes  to  pass  that  only  the  Christian  religion  knows  how 
to  reconcile  external  social  demands  with  the  most  intimate  crav- 
ing for  personal  freedom;  the  restraints  of  life,  with  the  craving 
for  life.  Only  the  Christian  religion  really  and  vitally  translates 
obedience  into  the  language  of  freedom,'  only  within  her  pale  is 
the  individual  truly  wedded  to  society.  And  it  is  just  this  func- 
tion of  Christianity  that  St.  Paul  has  in  mind  when  he  says  that 
Christianity  puts  an  end  to  the  bondage  of  the  law.  All  pure 
ethics  remains  in  bondage  to  the  law;  even  ethics  as  a  science 
is  only  a  scientific  presentation  of  just  this  bondage.  Ethics 
speaks  to  man  of  social  needs;  but  religion  tells  him  of  himself, 
his  noble  origin,  of  the  hidden  powers  of  his  spiritual  nature, 
stimulates  his  craving  for  entire  freedom,  represents  this  free- 
dom in  its  dazzling  perfection,  and  then  points  out  morality  to 
him  as  the  way  to  this  perfection.  Such  is  the  religious  basis 
of  morality." 

What  use  does  the  novitiate  make  of  these  five  ideals  ? 

1.  It  teaches  the  lesson  of  necessary  rest  and  recre- 
ation, (a)  by  making  provision  for  them  in  the  rules 
and  constitutions  of  the  order;   (b)   by  obeying  the 
decree  of  the  Holy  See  dated  19  March,  1603. 

2.  It  teaches  the  lesson  of  Stoic  fortitude,  but  tem- 
pers it  with  reliance  on  Divine  Providence.     It  bids  the 
novices  heed  the  words  of  St.  Peter:  "Cast  all  your 
care  upon  the  Lord,  for  He  hath  care  of  you";1  and 
take  to  heart  the  Saviour's  message  at  the  Last  Supper: 

1 1  Pet.  v,  7. 


The  Teaclier*s  Ideals  of  Personality.  97 

"Let  not  your  heart  be  troubled.     You  believe  in  God ; 
believe  also  in  Me." 

3.  The  Platonic  ideal  in  its  best  form  is  cherished 
day  after  day  by  spiritual  reading  and  devout  medita- 
tion.    It  is  kept  pure  by  silence  in  the  community  and 
by  withdrawal  from  the  world  of  affairs. 

4.  A  typical  illustration  of  the  Aristotelian  sense  of 
proportion  is  implied  in  St.  John  Baptist  de  la  Salle's 
advice  to  his  Brothers: 

"If  we  desire  to  perform  our  actions  with  the  perfection  that 
God  requires  of  us,  we  must  be  particularly  careful  not  to  per- 
form any  thoughtlessly  or  with  precipitation.  Hence,  before 
undertaking  what  is  proposed,  we  should  wait  some  time  to  con- 
sider and  examine  four  things:  (1)  Whether  the  action  we  are 
about  to  perform  be  contrary  to  the  law  of  God,  or  will  offend 
Him  in  any  way;  (2)  whether  this  action  will  not  withdraw  us 
from  our  duty  and  the  obligations  of  our  state,  which  we  should 
perform  perfectly  and  in  preference  to  all  other  good  that  we 
might  accomplish;  (3)  whether  it  be  contrary  to  the  rules  of 
the  community  or  to  the  resolutions  we  have  taken  to  regulate 
our  conduct;  (4)  whether  it  be  opposed  to  some  greater  good, 
either  for  ourselves  or  for  our  neighbor."2 

5.  As  to  the  realization  of  the  Christian  ideal,  it  is 
the  very  purpose  for  which  the  order  exists.    When  the 
novice  shows  no  disposition  to  labor  for  this  end,  he  is 
summarily    dismissed.      We   may,    therefore,    conclude 
that,    although    the    religious    novitiate    directly    pre- 
pares only  for  the  religious  life,  yet,  by  its  insistence 
on  the  spirit  of  faith  and  its  frequent  daily  exercise 
of  the  virtue  of  faith,  it  tends  to  develop  good  strong 


1  John  xiv,  I. 

2  Collection  of  Short  Treatises,  pp.  121,  122. 


98  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

character.     It  supplies  as  a  by-product  the  most  im- 
portant factor  in  the  personality  of  the  teacher. 

"Seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God  and  His  justice, 
and  all  these  things  shall  be  added  unto  you." 

General  Summary. — The  Necessity  of  Faith. 

We  have  seen  in  Chapter  I  that  the  work  of  educa- 
tion is  impossible  without  genuine  human  faith — (1) 
faith  of  the  teacher  in  the  pupil,  (2)  faith  of  the  pupil 
in  his  teacher,  (3)  faith  of  the  pupil  in  his  fellow-pupils. 
Moreover,  education  as  a  process  and  a  system  is  im- 
possible without  faith  on  the  part  of  society — (1)  faith 
in  an  educational  ideal,  (2)  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  edu- 
cation not  merely  for  the  select  few,  but  also  for  the 
democratic  many,  (3)  faith  in  the  value  of  right  meth- 
ods when  properly  employed. 

This  human  faith  imposes  (1)  on  the  teacher  the 
duty  of  developing  a  noble  character,  a  fine  personality 
— (a)  in  himself,  (b)  in  his  pupils;  (£)  on  the  pupils 
the  duty  of  responding  promptly  and  fully  by  due  serv- 
ice, to  these  efforts  to  fit  them  for  their  social  heritage. 

Yet  the  public  normal  school  has  some  limitations.  It 
is  not  permitted  to  teach  directly  either  as  moral  train- 
ing or  in  connection  with  any  other  subject  of  the  cur- 
riculum the  highest  form  of  religion  revealed  to  man. 
It  is  not  permitted  to  teach  definite  Christian  doctrines 
as  divine  in  origin  and  therefore  binding  on  man.  It 
is  not  permitted  to  trace  their  development  in  history 


1  Matt,  vi,  33. 


The  Necessity  of  Faith.  99 

nor  to  show  how  the  hearty  and  full  acceptance  of 
Christian  principles  leads  to  the  development  of  that 
type  of  character  which  we  speak  of  as  personal  holi- 
ness. It  is  therefore  denied  the  use  of  the  most  effica- 
cious means  to  form  character. 

In  Chapter  II  we  saw  that  the  religious  novitiate 
proposes  to  the  novice  as  his  chief  studies  God  and 
the  human  soul;  as  his  special  method,  "spiritual 
exercises."  Self-examination  was  found  to  be  a  means 
to  self-mastery,  and  self-mastery  was  to  be  won  largely 
through  assiduous  "meditation."  Meditation  includes 
not  only  a  learning  process,  but  also  practice  in  moti- 
vation and  habit-building  as  well  as  in  thinking  and 
willing.  Besides  these  forms  of  training  which  develop 
him  in  his  individual  capacity — so  to  say,  "from  the 
foundation  up,"  viz.,  as  creature,  human  being,  Chris- 
tian, and  religious — the  novice  as  a  social  being  is 
trained  to  obedience  and  "fraternal  charity."  He  is 
taught  also  to  look  beyond  the  immediate  present  and 
to  forecast  the  effects  of  his  actions  on  himself  and  on 
others  not  only  in  the  near  future,  but  even  beyond  the 
limits  of  time.  To  appreciate  so  great  a  responsi- 
bility and  to  prepare  for  its  fulfillment,  he  must  de- 
velop the  "spirit  of  faith,"  which  endeavors  to  appraise 
things  at  their  eternal  values.  The  limitations  im- 
posed by  the  novitiate  help  to  secure  the  higher  per- 
sonal development  of  the  novice  and  to  guarantee  for 
him  a  larger  measure  of  social  efficiency. 

Of  the  five  ideals  of  personality  considered  in  Chapter 
III,  the  Christian  ideal,  with  its  essential  note  of  sacri- 


100  The  Personality  of  the  Teacher. 

fice,  is,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  only  incidental  in 
the  normal  school.  In  the  novitiate,  it  is  not  only 
integral,  but  essential.  Without  it  even  the  profes- 
sional spirit  suffers.  The  Religious  Novitiate,  there- 
fore, since  it  develops  a  fine  type  of  personality  and 
directly  fosters  the  professional  spirit,  renders  a  vital 
pedagogical  service  to  society. 


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Byrne,  W.  A.  **The  Necessity  of  an  Enlightened  Conscience  for 
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Cavanaugh,  J.  W.,  C.  S.  C.  "Religious  Instruction  the  Basis  of 
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Coe,  G.  A.  "Moral  and  Religious  Education  from  the  Psycho- 
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Conaty,  lit.  Rev.  T.  J.  "The  Personality  of  the  Teacher,"  N.  E. 
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Condon,  R.  F.  "Some  Errors  in  Education,"  Cath.  Ed.  Assoc. 
Proc.,  1911,  p.  310. 

Considine,  M.  J.  "The  Catholic  View  of  Moral  and  Religious 
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Crane,  R.  "The  Catholic  School  and  Social  Morality,"  Cath.  Ed. 
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Fergusson,  E.  M.  "The  Teachers'  Training  Work  of  the  Inter- 
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Fisher,  G.  J.  "Character  Development  Through  Social  and  Per- 
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Frost,  E.  P.  "Habit  Formation  and  Reformation,"  Yale  Review, 
IV,  1914,  p.  130  (Oct.). 

Garvin,  J.  E.  "Culture  and  the  Teacher,"  Cath.  Ed.  Assoc. 
Proc.,  1909,  p.  294. 

Halleck,  R.  P.  "Teachers  of  Youth:  The  Special  Training  of 
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Harris,  T.  W.  "The  Separation  of  the  Church  from  the  School 
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Holland,  C.  J.  "The  Bible  and  the  Schools,"  Cath.  Ed.  Assoc. 
Proc.,  1914,  p.  220. 

Hunter,  R.  H.  "Catholic  Education  and  the  Public  Welfare," 
Cath.  Ed.  Assoc.  Proc.,  1913,  p.  95. 

Johnson,  D.  B.  "The  Strength  of  the  Normal  School,"  2V.  E.  A. 
Proc.,  1914,  p.  552. 

Kirk,  J.  B.  "A  Statement  of  the  Issues  Now  Confronting  the 
Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States,"  N.  E.  A.  Proc.,  1907, 
p.  740. 

LaRue,  D.  "The  Church  and  the  Public  Schools,"  Educational 
Review,  XXXVII,  1909,  p.  468. 

Lyttleton,  E.  "Instruction  in  Matters  of  Sex,"  Ed.  Rev.,  XLVI, 
1913,  p.  135. 

Nicholl,  J.  B.,  S.M.  "Present  Day  Tendencies  in  Education," 
Cath.  Ed.  Assoc.  Proc.,  1914,  p.  143. 

O'Connell,  Mgr.  J.  T.  "Christian  Teaching,"  Cath.  Ed.  Assoc. 
Proc.,  1906,  p.  268. 

O'Reilly,  P.  B.,  S.M.  "Necessity  and  Means  of  Promoting  Vo- 
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p.  253. 

Pace,  E.  A.  "How  Christ  Taught  Religion,"  Catholic  University 
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Cath.  U.  Bulletin,  II,  1896,  p.  188;  "St.  Thomas'  Theory  of 
Education,"  Cath.  U.  Bulletin,  VIII,  1902,  p.  290;  "The 
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Proc.,  1914,  p.  527. 

Powers,  W.,  S.  J.  "The  Thorough  Formation  of  Our  Teachers  in 
the  Spirit  and  Observance  of  Their  Respective  Orders,  an 
Indispensable  Condition  to  Sound  and  Successful  Pedagog- 
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Ruediger,  W.  C.  "Indirect  Improvement  of  Mental  Function 
through  Ideals,"  Ed.  Rev.,  XXXVI,  1908,  p.  364;  "Recent 
Tendencies  in  Normal  Schools  of  the  United  States,"  Ed. 
Rev.,  XXXIII,  1907,  p.  270. 

Russell,  J.  E.  "Professional  Factors  in  the  Training  of  the 
High  School  Teacher,"  Ed.  Rev.,  XLV,  1913,  p.  217. 

Sanders,  F.   K.     "Training  Teachers  of  Religion  in  Universities 

and  Colleges,"  Rel.  Ed.,  Ill,  1908,  p.  55  (June). 
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Ed.  Rev.,  XXXVII,  1909,  p.  375. 
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Work  in  Normal  School,"  N.  E.  A.  Proc.,  1911,  p.  697. 
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Church,"  Cath.  Ed.  Assoc.  Proc.,  1913,  p.  66. 
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Ed.  Assoc.  Proc.,  1911,  p.  383. 
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Education,"  Cath.  Ed.  Assoc.  Proc.,  1911,  p.  404. 
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XXXVI,  1908,  p.  109. 
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p.  108. 

VITA. 

Brother  Chrysostom  (Joseph  John  Conlan)  was  born  in  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  in  1863.  He  was  educated  at  the  Skinner  School 
and  the  Hillhouse  High  School  of  his  native  city,  and  also  at 
Manhattan  College,  New  York,  from  which  he  received  the  de- 
grees of  A.  B.,  1881,  and  A.  M.,  1903.  After  his  graduation  he 
was  instructor  in  English  for  one  year  in  La  Salle  College,  Phila- 
delphia. In  September,  1883,  he  entered  the  Institute  of  the 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools.  From  1885  to  1888  he  was 
instructor  in  Latin  at  St.  Joseph's  College,  Buifalo.  From  1888 
to  1893  he  was  professor  of  Latin  at  Manhattan  College,  and  for 
seven  years  thereafter  retained  affiliation  with  that  department. 
From  1888  to  1890  he  was  also  assistant  in  the  department  of 
philosophy.  In  1890  and  subsequent  years  the  subjects  of 
philosophy  and  psychology  were  assigned  to  him.  At  the  Catholic 
University  he  pursued  courses  in  education  under  Dr.  Shields; 
philosophy,  under  Dr.  Pace;  psychology,  under  Dr.  Sauvage  and 
Dr.  Ulrich;  biology,  under  Professor  Parker;  and  sociology, 
under  Dr.  Kerby. 


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